Influence of martensite content and morphology on the toughness and fatigue behavior of high-martensite dual-phase steels

A series of high-martensite dual-phase (HMDP) steels exhibiting a 0.3 to 0.8 volume fraction of martensite (V _m ), produced by intermediate quenching (IQ) of a vanadium and boron-containing microalloyed steel, have been studied for toughness and fatigue behavior to supplement the contents of a recent report by the present authors on the unusual tensile behavior of these steels. The studies included assessment of the quasi-static and dynamic fracture toughness and fatigue-crack growth (FCG) behavior of the developed steels. The experimental results show that the quasi-static fracturetoughness (K _ICV ) increases with increasing V _m in the range between V _m =0.3 and 0.6 and then decreases, whereas the dynamic fracture-toughness parameters (K _ID , K _D , and J _ID ) exhibit a significant increase in their magnitudes for steels containing 0.45 to 0.60 V _m before achieving a saturation plateau. Both the quasi-static and dynamic fracture-toughness values exhibit the best range of toughnesses for specimens containing approximately equal amounts of precipitate-free ferrite and martensite in a refined microstructural state. The magnitudes of the fatigue threshold in HMDP steels, for V _m between 0.55 and 0.60, appear to be superior to those of structural steels of a similar strength level. The Paris-law exponents (m) for the developed HMDP steels increase with increasing V _m , with an attendant decrease in the pre-exponential factor (C).     

Correlation of Tensile Properties and Strain Hardening Behavior with Martensite Volume Fraction in Dual-Phase Steels

In the present study, tensile properties, strain hardening and fracture behavior of dual-phase (DP) steels were correlated with martensite volume fraction (V _M ). A series of DP steels with different amounts of V _M (28–50 %) were produced by cold rolling and subsequent intercritical annealing of a ferrite-pearlite starting structure. Hardness and tensile tests results of DP steels showed that variation of hardness, uniform elongation and total elongation with V _M was linear and obeyed the rule of mixtures, whereas yield strength and ultimate tensile strength exhibited a nonlinear variation with V _M . Analysis of strain hardening behavior of DP steels by the Hollomon analysis showed two stages of strain hardening corresponding to ferrite deformation and co-deformation of ferrite and martensite, respectively. The strain hardening exponent of first stage (n _I ) increased with increasing V _M , while the strain hardening exponent of second stage (n _II ) as well as transition strain between the deformation stages decreased.     

Unraveling the Initial Microstructure Effects on Mechanical Properties and Work-Hardening Capacity of Dual-Phase Steel

Ferritic-martensitic, dual-phase (DP) microstructures with different size, morphology, and distribution of martensite were produced by altering the initial microstructures using heat treatment and thermomechanical processing routes. It was revealed that the strength, ductility, and work-hardening rate of DP steels strongly depend on the volume fraction and the morphology of the martensite phase. In this regard, the fine-grained DP microstructure showed a high work-hardening ability toward an excellent combination of strength and ductility. Such a microstructure can be readily obtained by intercritical annealing of an ultrafine grained (UFG) microstructure, where the latter can be produced by cold-rolling followed by tempering of a martensite starting microstructure. Conclusively, the enhancement of mechanical properties of DP steels through microstructural refinement was found to be more beneficial compared with increasing the volume fraction of martensite. Finally, it was also demonstrated that the work-hardening rate analysis based on the instantaneous (incremental) work-hardening exponents might be an advantageous approach for characterizing DP steels along with the conventional approaches.     

Strain distribution effects on the low-cycle fatigue behavior of Fe-C-Mo steels

The strain distributions obtained from monotonic finite element method (FEM) calculations have been employed to model the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of Fe-C-Mo dual-phase steels. The microstructures considered have a continuous ferrite matrix (with Mo₂C precipitates) surrounding martensite packets. Two microstructural parameters have been controlled: (1) the volume fraction of martensite and (2) the strength of the ferrite matrix. The FEM approximations show that highly strained regions dominate LCF lifetimes. The experimentally observed reductions in plastic strain life for increasing martensite volume fractions are described usingM _ε , the strain magnification factor, which is obtained from the FEM analyses. Strengthening the ferrite matrix or reducing the volume fraction of martensite reducesM _ε . The cyclic softening observed is qualitatively correlated with FEM predictions of increasing plastic strain in the martensite as the ferrite strength increases. The overall cyclic hardening-softening behavior results from the combination of ferritic hardening combined with martensitic softening. Formerly Graduate Student, Department of Materials Science, University of Virginia.     

Strength and fatigue properties in medium carbon duplex steels

The effect of microstructure on strength and fatigue properties has been investigated in two medium carbon alloy steels (BS 817M40 and BS 835M30) by developing dual-phase, ferritic-martensitic microstructures. Hardness-strength relationships and fatigue resistance at comparatively high strength levels were investigated by producing various microstructures. Conventional quenching and tempering, intercritical annealing and step quenching were used to vary the proportion, morphology and distribution of the ferrite and martensite phases. The results of the present study show that both hardness and strength increase with increasing proportion of martensite and/or hardness of the second phase. The relationship between hardness or strength and martensite percent is not in good agreement with a simple “law of mixtures” but is compatible with a more rapid strength increase at high martensite contents. The dual phase microstructures from the present study show superior near threshold ΔK_TH values than normal tempered martensite. The results also show a high degree of correlation between Paris equation m values and fracture toughness K_IC, showing that for high m values K_IC is low and vice versa. The present experiments show that although crack initiation resistance in dual-phase steels is excellent crack propagation rates are higher than in quenched and tempered microstructures for a given ΔK.     

Effects of volume fraction of tempered martensite on dynamic deformation properties of a Ti-6Al-4V alloy having a bimodal microstructure

The effects of the volume fraction of tempered martensite on the tensile and dynamic deformation properties of a Ti-6Al-4V alloy having a bimodal microstructure were investigated in this study. Five microstructures having various tempered-martensite volume fractions were obtained by varying heat-treatment conditions. Dynamic torsional tests were conducted on them using a torsional Kolsky bar. The test data were analyzed in relation to microstructures, tensile properties, and adiabatic shear-band formation. Under a dynamic loading condition, the maximum shear stress increased with increasing tempered-martensite volume fraction, whereas the fracture shear strain decreased. Observation of the deformed area after the dynamic torsional test indicated that a number of voids initiated mainly at α-phase/tempered-martensite interfaces, and that the number of voids increased with increasing martensite volume fraction. Adiabatic shear bands of 6 to 10 μm in width were formed in the specimens having lower martensite volume fractions, while they were not formed in those having higher martensite volume fractions. The possibility of adiabatic shear-band formation was explained by concepts of absorbed deformation energy and void initiation.     

Effects of Start and Finish Cooling Temperatures on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Low-Carbon High-Strength and Low-Yield Ratio Bainitic Steels

The effects of start and finish cooling temperatures on microstructure and mechanical properties of low-carbon high-strength and low-yield ratio bainitic steels were investigated in this study. Four kinds of low-carbon high-strength and low-yield ratio bainitic steels were fabricated by varying the start and finish cooling temperatures and cooling rates, and their microstructure and mechanical properties such as tensile and Charpy impact properties were measured. In the steels cooled down from the high start cooling temperature above Ar₁ [978 K (705 °C)], the volume fraction of acicular ferrite is lower than in the steels cooled down from the low start cooling temperature below Ar₁ [978 K (705 °C)]. The finish cooling temperatures and cooling rates affect the formation of bainitic ferrite, granular bainite, and martensite–austenite (MA) constituents. According to the correlation between microstructure and mechanical properties, the tensile strength increases with increasing the volume fractions of bainitic ferrite and MA constituents, whereas the elongation decreases. The yield ratio decreases as the volume fraction of MA constituents increases. Charpy impact absorbed energy is proportional to the volume fraction of acicular ferrite, and is inversely proportional to the volume fraction of granular bainite.     

Effect of Heat Treatment on Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Fracture Behaviour of Ship and Dual Phase Steels

 Grade A (GA) and high strength steel DH36 ship steels possessing different chemical compositions were used, and strength properties of GA steel and DH36 steel were compared. Additionally, 4 types of dual phase (DP) steels with different martensite volume fractions (MVFs) were produced from GA steel by means of heat treatment and they were compared with other steels through conducting microstructure, microhardness, tensile and impact tests. The fracture surfaces of specimens (DH36, GA and DP steels) exposed to tensile and Charpy impact tests were investigated by scanning electron microscope. Furthermore, it was found that the specimens quenched from 800 and 900 ℃ had better strength than DH36 steel. The tensile test results indicated that the tensile strength of DP steel water quenched from 900 ℃ was 3 times that of GA steel and twice that of DH36 steel.     

Numerical Investigation of Influence of the Martensite Volume Fraction on DP Steels Fracture Behavior on the Basis of Digital Material Representation Model

Development of the methodology for creating reliable digital material representation (DMR) models of dual-phase steels and investigation of influence of the martensite volume fraction on fracture behavior under tensile load are the main goals of the paper. First, an approach based on image processing algorithms for creating a DMR is described. Then, obtained digital microstructures are used as input for the numerical model of deformation, which takes into account mechanisms of ductile fracture. Ferrite and martensite material model parameters are evaluated on the basis of micropillar compression tests. Finally, the model is used to investigate the impact of the martensite volume fraction on the DP steel behavior under plastic deformation. Results of calculations are presented and discussed in the paper.     

Effects of martensite morphology and volume fraction on quasi-static and dynamic deformation behavior of dual-phase steels

The effects of martensite morphology and volume fraction on the quasi-static and dynamic deformation behavior of dual-phase steels were investigated in this study. Quasi-static and dynamic torsional tests were conducted using a torsional Kolsky bar for four steel specimens, which had different martensite morphology and volume fraction, and then the test data were compared via microstructures, tensile properties, and fracture mode. In the intermediate quenched (IQ) steel specimens, very fine fibrous martensites were well distributed in the ferrite matrix, but bulky martensites were mixed with ferrites in the step quenched (SQ) specimens. Quasi-static torsional properties were similar to tensile properties, and fracture occurred in a ductile mode in IQ specimens, whereas cleavage fracture was predominated in SQ specimens. Under a dynamic loading condition, the fracture mode of SQ specimens was changed from cleavage to ductile fracture, whereas IQ specimens had a ductile fracture mode, irrespective of loading rate. These phenomena were analyzed using a shear lag model, phase continuity, and the thermal softening effect of martensite.     

Mechanical Properties and Bake Hardening Behaviour of two Cold Rolled Multiphase Sheet Steels subjected to CGL Heat Treatment Simulation

In recent years, multiphase steels have become a material of choice for use in the car manufacturing industry owing to their excellent mechanical properties. It is anticipated that in the years to come these steels will show the highest increase in usage. A particular aspect of their potential is that multiphase steels often show good bake hardening (BH) properties. The main factors that govern the microstructures and the properties of these steels are the chemical composition and the production process parameters. In this work two commercial cold rolled sheet steels with different carbon content were investigated. In order to produce dual phase (DP) steels with a ferrite‐martensite microstructure, the as‐received material was subjected to heat treatment simulating continuous galvanising line (CGL) cycles with an overageing zone before the zinc pot. After a first CGL cycle predominantly ferritic microstructures with small amounts of martensite, pearlite and retained austenite were obtained, which resulted in deviations from typical DP properties, e.g. in the occurrence of discontinuous yielding. A higher line speed led to improved mechanical properties. BH prestrain was varied between 0 and 10%. While only very little bake hardening was observed without prestrain, with increasing prestrain the amount of BH was evolving quickly towards larger values of more than 60 MPa. Generally, the BH values were somewhat larger for higher carbon content. Finally, an optimised CGL cycle was simulated at laboratory scale with changes in the process parameters. Thus, characteristic DP microstructures resulting in desired mechanical properties were obtained. For these optimised conditions, BH₂ values in excess of 60 MPa were achieved for both steels investigated.     

Impact of Martensite Spatial Distribution on Quasi-Static and Dynamic Deformation Behavior of Dual-Phase Steel

The effects of microstructure parameters of dual-phase steels on tensile high strain dynamic deformation characteristic were examined in this study. Cold-rolled steel sheets were annealed using three different annealing process parameters to obtain three different dual-phase microstructures of varied ferrite and martensite phase fraction. The volume fraction of martensite obtained in two of the steels was near identical (~ 19 pct) with a subtle difference in its spatial distribution. In the first microstructure variant, martensite was mostly found to be situated at ferrite grain boundaries and in the second variant, in addition to at grain boundaries, in-grain martensite was also observed. The third microstructure was very different from the above two with respect to martensite volume fraction (~ 67 pct) and its morphology. In this case, martensite packets were surrounded by a three-dimensional ferrite network giving an appearance of core and shell type microstructure. All the three steels were tensile deformed at strain rates ranging from 2.7 × 10^?4 (quasi-static) to 650 s^?1 (dynamic range). Field-emission scanning electron microscope was used to characterize the starting as well as post-tensile deformed microstructures. Dual-phase steel consisting of small martensite volume fraction (~ 19 pct), irrespective of its spatial distribution, demonstrated high strain rate sensitivity and on the other hand, steel with large martensite volume fraction (~ 67 pct) displayed a very little strain rate sensitivity. Interestingly, total elongation was found to increase with increasing strain rate in the dynamic regime for steel with core–shell type of microstructure containing large martensite volume fraction. The observed enhancement in plasticity in dynamic regime was attributed to adiabatic heating of specimen. To understand the evolving damage mechanism, the fracture surface and the vicinity of fracture ends were studied in all the three dual-phase steels.     

Improvement of Mechanical Properties of Reinforcing Steel Used in the Reinforced Concrete Structures

SAE1010 structural carbon steel, which has a low cost price and wide range of use in the construction industry, has been studied as dual phase (DP) steel subjected to appropriate heat treatment, and its mechanical properties have been investigated under various tempering conditions. Intercritical annealing heat treatment has been applied to the reinforcing steel in order to obtain DP steels with different martensite volume fraction. In addition, these DP steels have been tempered at 200, 300 and 400 °C for 45 min and then cooled to the room temperature. Mechanical properties such as tensile strength, yield strength, reduction in cross-sectional area, total elongation, resilience modulus and toughness have been examined. Furthermore, fractographic examination has been done with scanning electron microscope (SEM) as well as metallographic examination of the steels. As a result of this study, it is found that mechanical properties of DP steel have changed according to the hardness and ratio of martensite phase. In addition, tensile strength, yield strength and resilience modulus of the steels have been reduced. In contrast, the total elongation, reduction of the cross-sectional area and toughness have been increased.     

1300 MPa级Nb微合金化DH钢的组织性能

设计了不同相构成的超高强DH钢,抗拉强度均大于1300 MPa,组织由铁素体、马氏体、残留奥氏体和极少量碳化物构成。对比了不同相构成对超高强DH钢力学性能和应变硬化行为等的影响,并深入研究了残留奥氏体在超高强度DH钢中的作用机制。结果表明:随着马氏体和残留奥氏体体积分数的增大,铁素体体积分数的减小,实验钢屈服和抗拉强度同时升高,而延伸率呈先增大后减小趋势。软韧相铁素体体积分数的减小和硬相马氏体体积分数的增大导致屈服强度和抗拉强度增加。相对于回火马氏体,淬火马氏体对强度的提升更显著,在拉伸过程中转变的残留奥氏体的量是引起延伸率变化的主要原因,组织中显著的带状组织会造成颈缩后延伸率的明显降低。通过对应变硬化行为的分析表明,随着真应变的增大,应变硬化率呈减小的趋势,在真应变大于2%后的大范围内,对于应变硬化率,DH1>DH2>DH3,主要与铁素体体积分数有关;在真应变大于5.73%后,DH2钢的应变硬化率高于DH1钢和DH3钢,主要与DH2钢中更显著的TRIP效应有关。除了残留奥氏体体积分数,残留奥氏体中的碳含量对TRIP效应同样有显著的影响。较高比例的硬相马氏体组织结合适当比例的软韧相铁素体和残留奥氏体有助于DH2钢获得最良好的强塑积13.17 GPa·%,其中屈服强度达880 MPa,抗拉强度达1497 MPa,均匀延伸率为6.71%,总伸长率为8.8%,颈缩后延伸率为2.09%,屈强比0.59。      

热处理工艺对冷轧热镀锌双相钢组织与性能的影响

在实验室试制了热镀锌冷轧DP590双相钢,分析了临界区退火温度对双相钢组织性能的影响,并将同种成分的实验室试制双相钢与工业生产双相钢的组织性能作对比,结果表明:热镀锌双相钢在镀锌段易出现贝氏体组织,且随临界区温度的上升,贝氏体组织含量增多,双相钢的强度上升,而塑性下降;工业试制双相钢,贝氏体和马氏体交互附着在铁素体晶界上,它们的体积分数约占29%,抗拉强度为610MPa,伸长率为31.5%,各项性能符合要求。研究得出,通过控制第二相(马氏体+贝氏体)体积分数和分布形态,能够充分改善热镀锌双相钢的力学性能。     

Static and dynamic fracture toughness of a medium carbon microalloyed steel of three different microstructures

A multiphase ferrite-bainite-martensite (F-B-M) microstructure was developed in an automotive grade V-bearing medium carbon microalloyed steel, 38MnSiVS5. It was characterized using optical, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy. The tensile, Charpy impact, and static and dynamic fracture toughness behaviors were evaluated. The results are compared with those of ferrite-pearlite (F-P) and tempered martensite (T-M) microstructures of the same steel. Although the tensile properties of the multiphase microstructures were superior, the Charpy impact and static and dynamic fracture toughness properties were inferior compared with those of the other two microstructures. The F-P condition displayed the highest plane strain fracture toughness value (K_IC), while the T-M condition was characterized by the highest dynamic fracture toughness (conditional) value (K_IDQ). The Charpy impact energy of the T-M condition was greater than that for the other two conditions. An examination of the surfaces of fractured samples revealed predominant ductile crack growth in the F-P microstructure and a mixed mode (ductile and brittle) crack growth in the T-M and the F-B-M microstructures. Although the Charpy impact energy, plane fracture toughness (K_IC), and conditional dynamic fracture toughness (K_IDQ) of the multiphase microstructure were inferior to those of the T-M and the F-P microstructures, the toughness properties were comparable to those of medium carbon low alloy steels having bainite-martensite (AISI 4340) or tempered martensite microstructures.     

800～1200 MPa级超高强冷轧双相钢的组织与性能

在实验室试制了800~1200 MPa级超高强冷轧双相钢。DP800和DP1000的热轧组织为铁素体+珠光体,DP1200为铁素体+珠光体+贝氏体复相组织。热轧板经过冷轧和退火后呈现典型的双相钢组织特征,力学性能可以达到相应强度级别的要求。DP800和DP1000马氏体体积分数小于50%,铁素体相为基体;DP1200马氏体体积分数超过50%,马氏体转变为基体相。最后对退火板各力学性能之间的关系进行了对比分析。     

Intercritical annealing as a means of improving impact properties of plate steel

The influence of long time intercritical heat-treatments (720 to 750 °C) on the impact and tensile properties of ferrite/pearlite steels has been examined. Intercritical annealing enables Mn to diffuse to the α/ γ boundaries and refine the grain-boundary carbides on cooling to room temperature. When the resulting microstructure formed on cooling to room temperature is ferrite/pearlite, this treatment can result in a significant improvement in impact behavior compared to a normalizing treatment. On heating to the intercritical annealing temperature, Mn enrichment of the γ combined with a fast enough cooling rate results in martensite formation. This may be beneficial to both strength and impact behavior at low volume fractions of martensite, but a marked deterioration in impact behavior occurs at high volume fractions, even though grain-boundary carbides remain fine.     

Structure-Property Relationships in Dual-Phase Cu-Al Alloys: Part I . Individual Phases

Dual-phase (α + martensite) microstructures were produced in binary Cu-Al alloys by quenching from the (α + β) phase field. A wide range of martensite volume fraction V_M was obtained, depending on alloy composition and quench temperatureT. Linear dependence onT of V_M was established. Predefined values for V_M can thus be achieved by adjustment ofT and alloy composition. Furthermore, the size, shape, and distribution of component phases can be varied in a predetermined fashion by means of controlled cooling from the β range. The properties of α and martensite were tracedvia microhardness measurements. The microhardness of martensite increases with quench temperature in spite of the accompanying decrease of its solute content. This is in accord with previous work and emphasizes the dominating role of martensite ordered structure on strength. Such strength depends only on quench temperature irrespective of overall alloy composition or morphology. The α microhardness is not affected by alloy composition or quench temperature. The martensitic phase can be hardened by means of short time tempering due to order hardening or solute clustering effects. Depending on quench temperature, optimum use of such temper hardening can be achieved. Moreover, cold working of dual-phase structures followed by annealing at temperatures around 300 °C achieves substantial strengthening of both α and martensite. The strengthening of α is a consequence of anneal hardening. Although such high strength levels are accompanied by reduction of the ductility (as measured by thickness reduction achieved by cold rolling), the heat treatment schedule can be optimalized to achieve high strength while restoring ductility.