Sustainable and renewable energy from biomass wastes in palm oil industry: A case study in Malaysia

Palm oil is one of the most important oils in the world and huge amounts of palm biomass wastes are generated through palm oil extracting process which could endanger the environment. Meanwhile, electricity shortage is getting worse due to lack of fossil fuel. To convert biomasses from palm oil industry for power generation is a beneficial approach for both power shortage and environmental degradation. In order to investigate and optimize the generation process of power and heat from the waste biomass in palm oil industry, an analytic study of a combined heat and power plant in a palm oil mill fuelled with sustainable and renewable biomass wastes was conducted using ECLIPSE software through a case study in Malaysia. The resources of the biomass wastes in the mill were identified and the samples were collected on site. The waste samples were analysed in laboratory and their calorific value, chemical composition and biomethane potential were found. A simulation model was then set up using ECLIPSE software and the model was validated using the practical data of the CHP plant. Three different combinations of the biomass wastes, including EFB and Shell as fuel for power generation, MF co-firing with Biogas, and power generation using KS, EFB and Biogas with preheaters, were used in the simulation. It was found that all of the three combinations were able to produce enough electrical power and heat (steam) to meet the power and heat demand for the production process. The simulation results indicated that the palm solid biomass wastes and the biogas produced by mill effluent were able to provide enough sustainable and renewable fuel for the palm oil production process; and it is possible to provide extra electricity for the nearby area, which is one of the best option for utilization of palm oil biomass wastes.     

Life cycle energy efficiency and potentials of biodiesel production from palm oil in Thailand

Biodiesel production from palm oil has been considered one of the most promising renewable resources for transportation fuel in Thailand. The objective of this study was to analyze the energy performance and potential of the palm oil methyl ester (PME) production in Thailand. The PME system was divided into four stages: the oil palm plantation, transportation, crude palm oil (CPO) production, and transesterification into biodiesel. The results showed that the highest fossil-based energy consumption was in the transesterification process, followed by the plantation, transportation, and CPO production.     

GHG balance of crude palm oil for biodiesel production in the northern region of Brazil

Biomass has become important as an alternative to fossil fuels and as a means to decrease greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly in tropical regions such as Brazil. Therefore, the demand for energy crops has increased strongly, and among such crops, palm oil is distinctive because of its productivity and well-developed production techniques. This paper intends to evaluate crude palm oil's GHG balance through a life-cycle assessment approach. This study is based on the average data of an ideal palm oil system in the northern region of Brazil. In the production of crude palm oil, a large amount of CO₂ sequestration occurs during the growth of palm oil trees. In contrast, the greatest emissions are biotic CO₂, which returns to the atmosphere and emissions from fertilizer production. The GHG balance of an oil palm plantation is approximately −208 kg CO₂-equiv./1000 kg crude palm oil per year.     

Greenhouse gas emissions and energy balance of palm oil biofuel

The search for alternatives to fossil fuels is boosting interest in biodiesel production. Among the crops used to produce biodiesel, palm trees stand out due to their high productivity and positive energy balance. This work assesses life cycle emissions and the energy balance of biodiesel production from palm oil in Brazil. The results are compared through a meta-analysis to previous published studies: Wood and Corley (1991) [Wood BJ, Corley RH. The energy balance of oil palm cultivation. In: PORIM intl. palm oil conference – agriculture; 1991.], Malaysia; Yusoff and Hansen (2005) [Yusoff S, Hansen SB. Feasibility study of performing an life cycle assessment on crude palm oil production in Malaysia. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2007;12:50–8], Malaysia; Angarita et al. (2009) [Angarita EE, Lora EE, Costa RE, Torres EA. The energy balance in the palm oil-derived methyl ester (PME) life cycle for the cases in Brazil and Colombia. Renewable Energy 2009;34:2905–13], Colombia; Pleanjai and Gheewala (2009) [Pleanjai S, Gheewala SH. Full chain energy analysis of biodiesel production from palm oil in Thailand. Applied Energy 2009;86:S209–14], Thailand; and Yee et al. (2009) [Yee KF, Tan KT, Abdullah AZ, Lee KT. Life cycle assessment of palm biodiesel: revealing facts and benefits for sustainability. Applied Energy 2009;86:S189–96], Malaysia. In our study, data for the agricultural phase, transport, and energy content of the products and co-products were obtained from previous assessments done in Brazil. The energy intensities and greenhouse gas emission factors were obtained from the Simapro 7.1.8. software and other authors. These factors were applied to the inputs and outputs listed in the selected studies to render them comparable. The energy balance for our study was 1:5.37. In comparison the range for the other studies is between 1:3.40 and 1:7.78. Life cycle emissions determined in our assessment resulted in 1437 kg CO₂e/ha, while our analysis based on the information provided by other authors resulted in 2406 kg CO₂e/ha, on average. The Angarita et al. (2009) [Angarita EE, Lora EE, Costa RE, Torres EA. The energy balance in the palm oil-derived methyl ester (PME) life cycle for the cases in Brazil and Colombia. Renewable Energy 2009;34:2905–13] study does not report emissions. When compared to diesel on a energy basis, avoided emissions due to the use of biodiesel account for 80 g CO₂e/MJ. Thus, avoided life cycle emissions associated with the use of biodiesel yield a net reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. We also assessed the carbon balance between a palm tree plantation, including displaced emissions from diesel, and a natural ecosystem. Considering the carbon balance outcome plus life cycle emissions the payback time for a tropical forest is 39 years. The result published by Gibbs et al. (2008) [Gibbs HK, Johnston M, Foley JA, Holloway T, Monfreda C, Ramankutty N, et al., Carbon payback times for crop-based biofuel expansion in the tropics: the effects of changing yield and technology. Environmental Research Letters 2008;3:10], which ignores life cycle emissions, determined a payback range for biodiesel production between 30 and 120 years.     

Characterization of insoluble material isolated from Colombian palm oil biodiesel

Palm oil biodiesel (POB) is characterized by a very high precipitate content. Precipitate has caused potential customers to view POB unfavorably, thereby putting the suitability of this biofuel at risk. Therefore, precipitates isolated from POB were characterized in this study. The precipitates were fractionated by column chromatography, and then characterized using thin layer chromatography, FTIR, GC-FID, differential scanning calorimetry, and thermogravimetric analysis. Characterization revealed the preponderant presence of monopalmitin and free steryl glucosides (FSG) in the precipitates. FTIR suggested the presence of acylated steryl glucosides and fatty acid soaps, and thermal analysis revealed the presence of trace contaminants that may have coeluted with the monopalmitin and FSG during fractionation. All these findings should result in the development of techniques to prevent precipitate formation not only focused on the removal of FSG from POB.     

Energy balance and greenhouse gas emissions of biodiesel production from oil derived from wastewater and wastewater sludge

It has been recognized that oils derived from microorganism and wastewater sludge are comparable replacements of traditional biodiesel production feedstock, which is energy intensive and costly. Energy balance and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are essential factors to assess the feasibility of the production. This study evaluated the energy balance and GHG emissions of biodiesel production from microbial and wastewater sludge oil. The results show that energy balance and GHG emissions of biodiesel produced from microbial oil are significantly impacted by the cultivation methods and carbon source. For phototrophic microorganism (microalgae), open pond system gives 3.6 GJ higher energy gain than photo bioreactor system in per tonne biodiesel produced. For heterotrophic microorganisms, the energy balance depends on the type of carbon source. Three carbon sources including starch, cellulose, and starch industry wastewater (SIW) used in this study showed that utilization of SIW as carbon source provided the most favorable energy balance. When oil extracted from municipal sludge is used for biodiesel production, the energy gain is up to 29.7 GJ per tonne biodiesel produced, which is higher than the energy gain per tonne of biodiesel produced from SIW cultivated microbes. GHG emissions study shows that biodiesel production from microbes or sludge oil is a net carbon dioxide capture process except when starch is used as raw material for microbial oil production, and the highest capture is around 40 tonnes carbon dioxide per tonne of biodiesel produced.     

A green catalyst for biodiesel production from jatropha oil: Optimization study

In this study, a simple and solvent-free method was used to prepare sulfated zirconia-alumina (SZA) catalyst. Its catalytic activity was subsequently investigated for the transesterification of Jatropha curcas L. oil to fatty acid methyl ester (FAME). The effects of catalyst preparation parameters on the yield of FAME were investigated using Design of Experiment (DOE). Results revealed that calcination temperature has a quadratic effect while calcination duration has a linear effect on the yield of FAME. Apart from that, interaction between both variables was also found to significantly affect the yield of FAME. At optimum condition; calcination temperature and calcination duration at 490 °C and 4 h, respectively, an optimum FAME yield of 78.2 wt% was obtained. Characterization with XRD, IR and BET were then used to verify the characteristic of SZA catalyst with those prepared using well established method and also to describe the catalyst characteristic with its activity.     

Potential of waste palm cooking oil for catalyst-free biodiesel production

Disposal of waste palm cooking oil (WPCO) via an environmental-friendly route is of major importance in the quest for sustainable development. In this study, WPCO was utilized instead of refined vegetable oils as the source of triglycerides for biodiesel production. WPCO contains several impurities, such as water and free fatty acids, which limit its application in catalytic transesterification processes. Consequently, a catalyst-free process using supercritical methanol was employed to investigate the potential of WPCO as an economical feedstock for biodiesel production. The parameters that influence the reaction, including reaction time, temperature and the molar ratio of alcohol to oil, were investigated. For comparison purposes, refined palm oil (RPO) was also subjected to supercritical methanol reaction and it was found that both processes produced comparable optimum yields of 80% at their respective optimum conditions. Hence, it can be concluded that WPCO has high potential as an economical and practical future source of biodiesel.     

The rheological properties of biodiesel derived from cottonseed oil

The low-temperature rheological properties of a biopetroleum and petroleum diesel were investigated. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was employed to study their crystallization, and the Kissinger method was used to calculate the apparent activation energy of crystallization. The results show that the biopetroleum changes from Newtonian fluid to non-Newtonian fluid with the drop of temperature, and the transition temperature is close to the cold filter plugging point (CFPP) of the biopetroleum. The low-temperature rheological properties of the biopetroleum are as similar as petroleum diesel. A commercial low-temperature flow improver ethylene-vinyl acetate (T1804) had a good filterability depression effect on the biopetroleum.     

Comparison of palm oil, Jatropha curcas and Calophyllum inophyllum for biodiesel: A review

The world today is faced with serious global warming and environmental pollution. Besides, fossil fuel will become rare and faces serious shortage in the near future. This has triggered the awareness to find alternative energy as their sustainable energy sources. Biodiesel as a cleaner renewable fuel has been considered as the best substitution for diesel fuel due to it being used in any compression ignition engine without any modification. The main advantages of using biodiesel are its renewability and better quality of exhaust gas emissions. This paper reviews the production, performance and emission of palm oil, Jatropha curcas and Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel. Palm oil is one of the most efficient oil bearing crops in terms of oil yield, land utilization, efficiency and productivity. However, competition between edible oil sources as food with fuel makes edible oil not an ideal feedstock for biodiesel production. Therefore, attention is shifted to non-edible oil like Jatropha curcas and Calophyllum inophyllum. Calophyllum inophyllum oil can be transesterified and being considered as a potential biodiesel fuel. Compared to Palm oil and Jatropha biodiesel industry, biodiesel from Calophyllum inophyllum is still in a nascent state. Therefore, long term endurance research and tribological studies need to be carried out before Calophyllum inophyllum oil base biodiesel can become an alternative fuel in future.     

Cogeneration potential in the Columbian palm oil industry: Three case studies

The palm oil mills are characterized by the availability of considerable amounts of by-products of high-energy value such as empty fruit bunches (EFB), fibers, shells and liquid effluents with high content of organics called palm oil mill effluent (POME). A palm oil mill produces residues equivalent to almost three times the amount of oil produced by biomass, showing a huge potential for increasing the power efficiency of the plants and installed power, mainly by the use of by-products in cogeneration plants with high steam parameters and by reducing steam consumption in process. The objective of this paper is to present the results of the study about the cogeneration potential for three representative palm oil mills located in two important palm oil producing regions in Colombia (South-America), fifth palm oil producers of the world. The sizing of the cogeneration system was made assuming it operation during the greatest possible number of hours throughout the year (based on the seasonal availability of fruit) considering parameters for the steam at 2 MPa and 350 °C, using a condensing-extraction turbine. The balance of mass and energy was made by using the Gate Cycle Enter Software, version 5.51, to estimate the potential of electricity generation. The results showed that for fresh fruit bunch (FFB) processing capacities between 18 and 60 t FFB h⁻¹, it is possible to have surplus power ranging between 1 and 7 MW, if the plants are self-sufficient in electric energy and steam for process. With an average Capacity Factor (approximately 0.4), it is possible to expect a generation index of 75 and 160 kWh t⁻¹ FFB when the processing plant is operating or shutdown, respectively, 3 or 4 times better than when a traditional system with a back-pressure steam turbines is used. This analysis used up to 60% of EFB produced in plant as fuel, considering its value as fertilizer for the palm crop. Several economic conditions were considered to estimate the economic and technical feasibility of cogeneration systems in palm oil mill for Colombian palm oil sector.     

棕榈油生物柴油低温流动性的改进及其对氧化稳定性的影响

文章对棕榈油生物柴油的低温流动性和氧化稳定性进行了分析,发现棕榈油生物柴油具有较好的氧化稳定性,但是低温流动性较差。通过不同的方法(与-10#柴油、油酸甲酯、菜籽油生物柴油按照不同体积比混合)对棕榈油生物柴油的低温流动性进行了改进,并利用流变仪和Rancimat法分析了改进方法对棕榈油生物柴油低温流动性及氧化稳定性的影响。研究结果表明:与油酸甲酯混合可以降低棕榈油生物柴油的胶凝点,但其氧化稳定性随之变差;当棕榈油生物柴油的体积含量为5%~20%时,与-10#柴油的混合使得油样的胶凝点低于-10℃,氧化诱导期大于20 h;当棕榈油生物柴油的体积含量低于40%时,与菜籽油生物柴油的混合使得油样的胶凝点低于0℃,氧化诱导期大于6 h。     

Oil palm biomass as a sustainable energy source: A Malaysian case study

It has been widely accepted worldwide that global warming is by far the greatest threat and challenge in the new millennium. In order to stop global warming and to promote sustainable development, renewable energy is a perfect solution to achieve both targets. Presently million hectares of land in Malaysia is occupied with oil palm plantation generating huge quantities of biomass. In this context, biomass from oil palm industries appears to be a very promising alternative as a source of raw materials including renewable energy in Malaysia. Thus, this paper aims to present current scenario of biomass in Malaysia covering issues on availability and sustainability of feedstock as well as current and possible utilization of oil palm biomass. This paper will also discuss feasibility of some biomass conversion technologies and some ongoing projects in Malaysia related to utilization of oil palm biomass as a source of renewable energy. Based on the findings presented, it is definitely clear that Malaysia has position herself in the right path to utilize biomass as a source of renewable energy and this can act as an example to other countries in the world that has huge biomass feedstock.     

Life cycle assessment of biodiesel from Jatropha Curcas L oil. A case study of Cuba

The aim of this research is to identify and quantify the categories which have the largest environmental impact in the biodiesel production process from Jatropha curcas L oil. The Jatropha curcas L is selected due to its availability in Cuba, so 400 L/d was defined as a functional unit. The valorization analysis was conducted taking into account the conventional Jatropha curcas L oil production. The analysis is conducted based on several factors such as the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and agriculture wastes. The activities of agriculture and industrial stages are shown. The Life Cycle Assessment is addressed according to the ISO 14040 series, by using the Ecoinvent database 2003 and the Eco-indicator 99 methodology. Based on the obtained results, the environmental performance of the production of biodiesel from Jatropha curcas L oil has a good environmental behavior. The agriculture stage shows the greatest impact due to land use and fossil fuel depletion. In addition, electricity has the highest impact due to respiratory effects from the emission of tiny material particles into the atmosphere.     

A comparative study of KOH/Al2O3 and KOH/NaY catalysts for biodiesel production via transesterification from palm oil

The transesterification of palm oil to methyl esters (biodiesel) was studied using KOH loaded on Al₂O₃ and NaY zeolite supports as heterogeneous catalysts. Reaction parameters such as reaction time, wt% KOH loading, molar ratio of oil to methanol, and amount of catalyst were optimized for the production of biodiesel. The 25 wt% KOH/Al₂O₃ and 10 wt% KOH/NaY catalysts are suggested here to be the best formula due to their biodiesel yield of 91.07% at temperatures below 70 °C within 2–3 h at a 1:15 molar ratio of palm oil to methanol and a catalyst amount of 3–6 wt%. The leaching of potassium species in both spent catalysts was observed. The amount of leached potassium species of the KOH/Al₂O₃ was somewhat higher compared to that of the KOH/NaY catalyst. The prepared catalysts were characterized by using several techniques such as XRD, BET, TPD, and XRF.     

Optimization of heterogeneous biodiesel production from waste cooking palm oil via response surface methodology

Heterogeneous transesterification of waste cooking palm oil (WCPO) to biodiesel over Sr/ZrO₂ catalyst and the optimization of the process have been investigated. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to study the relationships of methanol to oil molar ratio, catalyst loading, reaction time, and reaction temperature on methyl ester yield and free fatty acid conversion. The experiments were designed using central composite by applying 2⁴ full factorial designs with two centre points. Transesterification of WCPO produced 79.7% maximum methyl ester yield at the optimum methanol to oil molar ratio = 29:1, catalyst loading = 2.7 wt%, reaction time = 87 min and reaction temperature = 115.5 °C.     

Combustion performance and exhaust emissions from the non-pressurised combustion of palm oil biodiesel blends

In this work, levels of exhaust species from the combustion of palm oil methyl ester (POME) and its blends with No. 2 diesel in a non-pressurised, water-cooled combustion chamber are evaluated. The study explores the correlations between emission species and fuel pumping pressures over a range of equivalence ratios (ERs). This is followed by a similar evaluation of emissions variation with POME proportions across the ER at predetermined values of fuel pumping pressure. Carbon monoxide (CO) level was found to be minimal when ER is within the 0.75–0.85 range, indicating improved combustion quality. As pumping pressure increases, the minimum CO level is raised but the optimum ER region is extended. Maximum nitric oxide (NO) production is recorded over this optimum ER range, and pumping pressure is seen to decrease the NO level only marginally. Exhaust CO improved across the tested ER range with increasing POME proportion in the fuel blends. This observed combustion improvement was offset by the accompanying increase in NO level when the POME content is raised. The work indicated the potential use of palm oil biodiesels in small-scale liquid fuel burners, although further examination is required to establish the optimum operating parameters and POME content for best NO–CO trade-off.     

Pressurized ultrasonic production of biodiesel from Jatropha oil: optimization and energy analysis

The present study deals with the development of a biodiesel production reactor based on pressurized ultrasonic cavitation technique. Transesterification of Jatropha oil takes place by passing low-frequency ultrasonic irradiation in the reaction mixture flowing at pressurized conditions in the sonochemical reactor. Reaction variables such as reaction time, molar ratio, catalyst concentration, and pressure of the reaction mixture were investigated to find the optimal parameters for biodiesel production. The energy requirement decreases with increase in pressure. Very low value of Specific Energy Consumption (0.018 kWh/kg) and significantly high value of Energy Use Index (598.83) are obtained when the pressure of reaction mixture is 15 bar. Increasing the pressure thereafter, leads to nominal gains. Ultrasonic irradiation at high-pressure condition has an additional advantage of rapid reaction and lower requirement of alcohol to oil molar ratio and catalyst concentration. Fifteen bar pressure is optimal for biodiesel production.     

Net energy balance of small-scale on-farm biodiesel production from canola and soybean

One necessary criterion for a biofuel to be a sustainable alternative to the petroleum fuels it displaces is a positive net energy balance. This study estimated the net energy ratio (NER), net energy balance (NEB), and net energy yield (NEY) of small-scale on-farm production of canola [Brassica napus (L.)] and soybean [Glycine max (L.)] biodiesel in the upper Midwest. Direct and embodied energy inputs based on well-defined system boundaries and contemporary data were used to estimate the energy requirement of crop production, oil extraction, and biofuel processing. The NER of canola biodiesel was 1.78 compared with 2.05 for soybean biodiesel. Canola biodiesel had a NEB of 0.66 MJ MJ⁻¹ of biofuel compared with 0.81 MJ MJ⁻¹ for soybean biodiesel. The NEY of soybean biodiesel was 10,951 MJ ha⁻¹, less than canola biodiesel which had a NEY of 11,353 MJ ha⁻¹. Use of soybean as a biodiesel feedstock was more energetically efficient than canola primarily due to reduced nitrogen fertilizer requirement. In terms of energetic productivity, canola was a more productive biodiesel feedstock than soybean due to its higher oil content. A best-case scenario based on optimal feedstock yields, reduced fertilizer input, and advanced biofuel processing equipment suggested that potential gains in energetic efficiency was greater for canola than soybean. According to our results, small-scale on-farm biodiesel production using canola and soybean can be an energetically efficient way to produce energy for on-farm use.     

Variability in sunflower oil quality for biodiesel production: A simulation study

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel made from vegetable oils or animal fats. The fatty acid composition of the feedstock, which varies among and within species, is the main determinant of biodiesel quality. In this work we analyze the variability in biodiesel quality (density, kinematic viscosity, heating value, cetane number and iodine value) obtained from sunflower oil, by means of a validated crop model that predicts the fatty acid composition of one high-oleic, and three traditional (high-linoleic) sunflower hybrids. The model was run with a 10-year average weather data from 56 weather stations in Argentina, and simulation results were compared to the biodiesel standards of Argentina, USA and Europe. We show that biodiesel produced from sunflower oil does not have one fixed quality, but different qualities depending on weather conditions and agricultural practices, and that intraspecific variation in biodiesel quality can be larger than interspecific differences. Our results suggest that (a) sunflower oil from high-oleic hybrids is suitable for biodiesel production (within limits of all analyzed standards), regardless of growing conditions and (b) sunflower oil from traditional hybrids is suitable for biodiesel production under the standards of Argentina and USA, while only certain hybrids grown in warm regions (e.g., Northern Argentina, Southern USA, China, India, Pakistan) are suitable for biodiesel production according to the European standard.