Sustainable and renewable energy from biomass wastes in palm oil industry: A case study in Malaysia

Palm oil is one of the most important oils in the world and huge amounts of palm biomass wastes are generated through palm oil extracting process which could endanger the environment. Meanwhile, electricity shortage is getting worse due to lack of fossil fuel. To convert biomasses from palm oil industry for power generation is a beneficial approach for both power shortage and environmental degradation. In order to investigate and optimize the generation process of power and heat from the waste biomass in palm oil industry, an analytic study of a combined heat and power plant in a palm oil mill fuelled with sustainable and renewable biomass wastes was conducted using ECLIPSE software through a case study in Malaysia. The resources of the biomass wastes in the mill were identified and the samples were collected on site. The waste samples were analysed in laboratory and their calorific value, chemical composition and biomethane potential were found. A simulation model was then set up using ECLIPSE software and the model was validated using the practical data of the CHP plant. Three different combinations of the biomass wastes, including EFB and Shell as fuel for power generation, MF co-firing with Biogas, and power generation using KS, EFB and Biogas with preheaters, were used in the simulation. It was found that all of the three combinations were able to produce enough electrical power and heat (steam) to meet the power and heat demand for the production process. The simulation results indicated that the palm solid biomass wastes and the biogas produced by mill effluent were able to provide enough sustainable and renewable fuel for the palm oil production process; and it is possible to provide extra electricity for the nearby area, which is one of the best option for utilization of palm oil biomass wastes.     

Life cycle energy efficiency and potentials of biodiesel production from palm oil in Thailand

Biodiesel production from palm oil has been considered one of the most promising renewable resources for transportation fuel in Thailand. The objective of this study was to analyze the energy performance and potential of the palm oil methyl ester (PME) production in Thailand. The PME system was divided into four stages: the oil palm plantation, transportation, crude palm oil (CPO) production, and transesterification into biodiesel. The results showed that the highest fossil-based energy consumption was in the transesterification process, followed by the plantation, transportation, and CPO production.     

Greenhouse gas emissions and energy balance of palm oil biofuel

The search for alternatives to fossil fuels is boosting interest in biodiesel production. Among the crops used to produce biodiesel, palm trees stand out due to their high productivity and positive energy balance. This work assesses life cycle emissions and the energy balance of biodiesel production from palm oil in Brazil. The results are compared through a meta-analysis to previous published studies: Wood and Corley (1991) [Wood BJ, Corley RH. The energy balance of oil palm cultivation. In: PORIM intl. palm oil conference – agriculture; 1991.], Malaysia; Yusoff and Hansen (2005) [Yusoff S, Hansen SB. Feasibility study of performing an life cycle assessment on crude palm oil production in Malaysia. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2007;12:50–8], Malaysia; Angarita et al. (2009) [Angarita EE, Lora EE, Costa RE, Torres EA. The energy balance in the palm oil-derived methyl ester (PME) life cycle for the cases in Brazil and Colombia. Renewable Energy 2009;34:2905–13], Colombia; Pleanjai and Gheewala (2009) [Pleanjai S, Gheewala SH. Full chain energy analysis of biodiesel production from palm oil in Thailand. Applied Energy 2009;86:S209–14], Thailand; and Yee et al. (2009) [Yee KF, Tan KT, Abdullah AZ, Lee KT. Life cycle assessment of palm biodiesel: revealing facts and benefits for sustainability. Applied Energy 2009;86:S189–96], Malaysia. In our study, data for the agricultural phase, transport, and energy content of the products and co-products were obtained from previous assessments done in Brazil. The energy intensities and greenhouse gas emission factors were obtained from the Simapro 7.1.8. software and other authors. These factors were applied to the inputs and outputs listed in the selected studies to render them comparable. The energy balance for our study was 1:5.37. In comparison the range for the other studies is between 1:3.40 and 1:7.78. Life cycle emissions determined in our assessment resulted in 1437 kg CO₂e/ha, while our analysis based on the information provided by other authors resulted in 2406 kg CO₂e/ha, on average. The Angarita et al. (2009) [Angarita EE, Lora EE, Costa RE, Torres EA. The energy balance in the palm oil-derived methyl ester (PME) life cycle for the cases in Brazil and Colombia. Renewable Energy 2009;34:2905–13] study does not report emissions. When compared to diesel on a energy basis, avoided emissions due to the use of biodiesel account for 80 g CO₂e/MJ. Thus, avoided life cycle emissions associated with the use of biodiesel yield a net reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. We also assessed the carbon balance between a palm tree plantation, including displaced emissions from diesel, and a natural ecosystem. Considering the carbon balance outcome plus life cycle emissions the payback time for a tropical forest is 39 years. The result published by Gibbs et al. (2008) [Gibbs HK, Johnston M, Foley JA, Holloway T, Monfreda C, Ramankutty N, et al., Carbon payback times for crop-based biofuel expansion in the tropics: the effects of changing yield and technology. Environmental Research Letters 2008;3:10], which ignores life cycle emissions, determined a payback range for biodiesel production between 30 and 120 years.     

A green catalyst for biodiesel production from jatropha oil: Optimization study

In this study, a simple and solvent-free method was used to prepare sulfated zirconia-alumina (SZA) catalyst. Its catalytic activity was subsequently investigated for the transesterification of Jatropha curcas L. oil to fatty acid methyl ester (FAME). The effects of catalyst preparation parameters on the yield of FAME were investigated using Design of Experiment (DOE). Results revealed that calcination temperature has a quadratic effect while calcination duration has a linear effect on the yield of FAME. Apart from that, interaction between both variables was also found to significantly affect the yield of FAME. At optimum condition; calcination temperature and calcination duration at 490 °C and 4 h, respectively, an optimum FAME yield of 78.2 wt% was obtained. Characterization with XRD, IR and BET were then used to verify the characteristic of SZA catalyst with those prepared using well established method and also to describe the catalyst characteristic with its activity.     

Potential of waste palm cooking oil for catalyst-free biodiesel production

Disposal of waste palm cooking oil (WPCO) via an environmental-friendly route is of major importance in the quest for sustainable development. In this study, WPCO was utilized instead of refined vegetable oils as the source of triglycerides for biodiesel production. WPCO contains several impurities, such as water and free fatty acids, which limit its application in catalytic transesterification processes. Consequently, a catalyst-free process using supercritical methanol was employed to investigate the potential of WPCO as an economical feedstock for biodiesel production. The parameters that influence the reaction, including reaction time, temperature and the molar ratio of alcohol to oil, were investigated. For comparison purposes, refined palm oil (RPO) was also subjected to supercritical methanol reaction and it was found that both processes produced comparable optimum yields of 80% at their respective optimum conditions. Hence, it can be concluded that WPCO has high potential as an economical and practical future source of biodiesel.     

Comparison of palm oil, Jatropha curcas and Calophyllum inophyllum for biodiesel: A review

The world today is faced with serious global warming and environmental pollution. Besides, fossil fuel will become rare and faces serious shortage in the near future. This has triggered the awareness to find alternative energy as their sustainable energy sources. Biodiesel as a cleaner renewable fuel has been considered as the best substitution for diesel fuel due to it being used in any compression ignition engine without any modification. The main advantages of using biodiesel are its renewability and better quality of exhaust gas emissions. This paper reviews the production, performance and emission of palm oil, Jatropha curcas and Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel. Palm oil is one of the most efficient oil bearing crops in terms of oil yield, land utilization, efficiency and productivity. However, competition between edible oil sources as food with fuel makes edible oil not an ideal feedstock for biodiesel production. Therefore, attention is shifted to non-edible oil like Jatropha curcas and Calophyllum inophyllum. Calophyllum inophyllum oil can be transesterified and being considered as a potential biodiesel fuel. Compared to Palm oil and Jatropha biodiesel industry, biodiesel from Calophyllum inophyllum is still in a nascent state. Therefore, long term endurance research and tribological studies need to be carried out before Calophyllum inophyllum oil base biodiesel can become an alternative fuel in future.     

Cogeneration potential in the Columbian palm oil industry: Three case studies

The palm oil mills are characterized by the availability of considerable amounts of by-products of high-energy value such as empty fruit bunches (EFB), fibers, shells and liquid effluents with high content of organics called palm oil mill effluent (POME). A palm oil mill produces residues equivalent to almost three times the amount of oil produced by biomass, showing a huge potential for increasing the power efficiency of the plants and installed power, mainly by the use of by-products in cogeneration plants with high steam parameters and by reducing steam consumption in process. The objective of this paper is to present the results of the study about the cogeneration potential for three representative palm oil mills located in two important palm oil producing regions in Colombia (South-America), fifth palm oil producers of the world. The sizing of the cogeneration system was made assuming it operation during the greatest possible number of hours throughout the year (based on the seasonal availability of fruit) considering parameters for the steam at 2 MPa and 350 °C, using a condensing-extraction turbine. The balance of mass and energy was made by using the Gate Cycle Enter Software, version 5.51, to estimate the potential of electricity generation. The results showed that for fresh fruit bunch (FFB) processing capacities between 18 and 60 t FFB h⁻¹, it is possible to have surplus power ranging between 1 and 7 MW, if the plants are self-sufficient in electric energy and steam for process. With an average Capacity Factor (approximately 0.4), it is possible to expect a generation index of 75 and 160 kWh t⁻¹ FFB when the processing plant is operating or shutdown, respectively, 3 or 4 times better than when a traditional system with a back-pressure steam turbines is used. This analysis used up to 60% of EFB produced in plant as fuel, considering its value as fertilizer for the palm crop. Several economic conditions were considered to estimate the economic and technical feasibility of cogeneration systems in palm oil mill for Colombian palm oil sector.     

棕榈油生物柴油低温流动性的改进及其对氧化稳定性的影响

文章对棕榈油生物柴油的低温流动性和氧化稳定性进行了分析,发现棕榈油生物柴油具有较好的氧化稳定性,但是低温流动性较差。通过不同的方法(与-10#柴油、油酸甲酯、菜籽油生物柴油按照不同体积比混合)对棕榈油生物柴油的低温流动性进行了改进,并利用流变仪和Rancimat法分析了改进方法对棕榈油生物柴油低温流动性及氧化稳定性的影响。研究结果表明:与油酸甲酯混合可以降低棕榈油生物柴油的胶凝点,但其氧化稳定性随之变差;当棕榈油生物柴油的体积含量为5%~20%时,与-10#柴油的混合使得油样的胶凝点低于-10℃,氧化诱导期大于20 h;当棕榈油生物柴油的体积含量低于40%时,与菜籽油生物柴油的混合使得油样的胶凝点低于0℃,氧化诱导期大于6 h。     

Oil palm biomass as a sustainable energy source: A Malaysian case study

It has been widely accepted worldwide that global warming is by far the greatest threat and challenge in the new millennium. In order to stop global warming and to promote sustainable development, renewable energy is a perfect solution to achieve both targets. Presently million hectares of land in Malaysia is occupied with oil palm plantation generating huge quantities of biomass. In this context, biomass from oil palm industries appears to be a very promising alternative as a source of raw materials including renewable energy in Malaysia. Thus, this paper aims to present current scenario of biomass in Malaysia covering issues on availability and sustainability of feedstock as well as current and possible utilization of oil palm biomass. This paper will also discuss feasibility of some biomass conversion technologies and some ongoing projects in Malaysia related to utilization of oil palm biomass as a source of renewable energy. Based on the findings presented, it is definitely clear that Malaysia has position herself in the right path to utilize biomass as a source of renewable energy and this can act as an example to other countries in the world that has huge biomass feedstock.     

A comparative study of KOH/Al2O3 and KOH/NaY catalysts for biodiesel production via transesterification from palm oil

The transesterification of palm oil to methyl esters (biodiesel) was studied using KOH loaded on Al₂O₃ and NaY zeolite supports as heterogeneous catalysts. Reaction parameters such as reaction time, wt% KOH loading, molar ratio of oil to methanol, and amount of catalyst were optimized for the production of biodiesel. The 25 wt% KOH/Al₂O₃ and 10 wt% KOH/NaY catalysts are suggested here to be the best formula due to their biodiesel yield of 91.07% at temperatures below 70 °C within 2–3 h at a 1:15 molar ratio of palm oil to methanol and a catalyst amount of 3–6 wt%. The leaching of potassium species in both spent catalysts was observed. The amount of leached potassium species of the KOH/Al₂O₃ was somewhat higher compared to that of the KOH/NaY catalyst. The prepared catalysts were characterized by using several techniques such as XRD, BET, TPD, and XRF.     

Combustion performance and exhaust emissions from the non-pressurised combustion of palm oil biodiesel blends

In this work, levels of exhaust species from the combustion of palm oil methyl ester (POME) and its blends with No. 2 diesel in a non-pressurised, water-cooled combustion chamber are evaluated. The study explores the correlations between emission species and fuel pumping pressures over a range of equivalence ratios (ERs). This is followed by a similar evaluation of emissions variation with POME proportions across the ER at predetermined values of fuel pumping pressure. Carbon monoxide (CO) level was found to be minimal when ER is within the 0.75–0.85 range, indicating improved combustion quality. As pumping pressure increases, the minimum CO level is raised but the optimum ER region is extended. Maximum nitric oxide (NO) production is recorded over this optimum ER range, and pumping pressure is seen to decrease the NO level only marginally. Exhaust CO improved across the tested ER range with increasing POME proportion in the fuel blends. This observed combustion improvement was offset by the accompanying increase in NO level when the POME content is raised. The work indicated the potential use of palm oil biodiesels in small-scale liquid fuel burners, although further examination is required to establish the optimum operating parameters and POME content for best NO–CO trade-off.     

Optimization of heterogeneous biodiesel production from waste cooking palm oil via response surface methodology

Heterogeneous transesterification of waste cooking palm oil (WCPO) to biodiesel over Sr/ZrO₂ catalyst and the optimization of the process have been investigated. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to study the relationships of methanol to oil molar ratio, catalyst loading, reaction time, and reaction temperature on methyl ester yield and free fatty acid conversion. The experiments were designed using central composite by applying 2⁴ full factorial designs with two centre points. Transesterification of WCPO produced 79.7% maximum methyl ester yield at the optimum methanol to oil molar ratio = 29:1, catalyst loading = 2.7 wt%, reaction time = 87 min and reaction temperature = 115.5 °C.     

Variability in sunflower oil quality for biodiesel production: A simulation study

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel made from vegetable oils or animal fats. The fatty acid composition of the feedstock, which varies among and within species, is the main determinant of biodiesel quality. In this work we analyze the variability in biodiesel quality (density, kinematic viscosity, heating value, cetane number and iodine value) obtained from sunflower oil, by means of a validated crop model that predicts the fatty acid composition of one high-oleic, and three traditional (high-linoleic) sunflower hybrids. The model was run with a 10-year average weather data from 56 weather stations in Argentina, and simulation results were compared to the biodiesel standards of Argentina, USA and Europe. We show that biodiesel produced from sunflower oil does not have one fixed quality, but different qualities depending on weather conditions and agricultural practices, and that intraspecific variation in biodiesel quality can be larger than interspecific differences. Our results suggest that (a) sunflower oil from high-oleic hybrids is suitable for biodiesel production (within limits of all analyzed standards), regardless of growing conditions and (b) sunflower oil from traditional hybrids is suitable for biodiesel production under the standards of Argentina and USA, while only certain hybrids grown in warm regions (e.g., Northern Argentina, Southern USA, China, India, Pakistan) are suitable for biodiesel production according to the European standard.     

Net energy balance of small-scale on-farm biodiesel production from canola and soybean

One necessary criterion for a biofuel to be a sustainable alternative to the petroleum fuels it displaces is a positive net energy balance. This study estimated the net energy ratio (NER), net energy balance (NEB), and net energy yield (NEY) of small-scale on-farm production of canola [Brassica napus (L.)] and soybean [Glycine max (L.)] biodiesel in the upper Midwest. Direct and embodied energy inputs based on well-defined system boundaries and contemporary data were used to estimate the energy requirement of crop production, oil extraction, and biofuel processing. The NER of canola biodiesel was 1.78 compared with 2.05 for soybean biodiesel. Canola biodiesel had a NEB of 0.66 MJ MJ⁻¹ of biofuel compared with 0.81 MJ MJ⁻¹ for soybean biodiesel. The NEY of soybean biodiesel was 10,951 MJ ha⁻¹, less than canola biodiesel which had a NEY of 11,353 MJ ha⁻¹. Use of soybean as a biodiesel feedstock was more energetically efficient than canola primarily due to reduced nitrogen fertilizer requirement. In terms of energetic productivity, canola was a more productive biodiesel feedstock than soybean due to its higher oil content. A best-case scenario based on optimal feedstock yields, reduced fertilizer input, and advanced biofuel processing equipment suggested that potential gains in energetic efficiency was greater for canola than soybean. According to our results, small-scale on-farm biodiesel production using canola and soybean can be an energetically efficient way to produce energy for on-farm use.     

Muskmelon (Cucumis melo) seed oil: A potential non-food oil source for biodiesel production

Methanolysis of muskmelon seed oil was optimized employing RSM (response surface methodology). Four process variables were evaluated at two levels: methanol/oil molar ratio (3:1–12:1), catalyst concentration in relation to oil mass (0.25–1.25 wt % KOH), reaction temperature (25–65 °C) and methanolysis reaction time (20–90 min). Multiple regression analysis was employed to get the quadratic polynomial equation for predicting transesterification using RSM. The result indicated that catalyst concentration and reaction temperature were the important factors that significantly affect the yield of MMOMEs (muskmelon oil methyl esters)/biodiesel. The RSM methodology was used to obtain methyl esters yield (89.5%) were found at following reaction conditions; 5.8:1 methanol-to-oil ratio, 0.79% catalyst concentration, 55 °C reaction temperature and 72.5-min reaction time. There was a linear correlation between observed and predicted values. The biodiesel was analyzed using GC/MS (gas chromatography/mass spectrometry) which indicated four FAMEs (fatty acid methyl esters) (linoleic-, oleic-, palmitic- and stearic acids) as its major components. The FT-IR (fourier transform infraRed) spectrum of MMOMEs was also acquired to ensure the confirmation of methyl esters formation. Fuel properties of MMOMEs were determined and found to satisfy the ASTM D 6751 and EU 14214 specifications.     

A model for biodiesel supply chain: A case study in Iran

Biodiesel is here considered as an alternative fuel in Iran in order to benefit from environmental aspects and contribution to final energy demand. An analytical tool is developed to consider different scenarios in biodiesel production. This study provides a regional framework in terms of techno-economic parameters to deeply understand the agricultural, technical, and economic aspects of biodiesel supply chain of Iran including resources, production, distribution, and consumer. The study further assesses the potential of biodiesel production in different geographical regions of Iran. It reveals the contribution of current potential resources to make the future biodiesel demand.     

The potential of a renewable energy technology for rural electrification in Nepal: A case study from Tangting

Nepal, one of the least developed countries, is characterized by low per capita energy consumption and hugely dominated by traditional energy sources. Despite having enormous potential of hydro-electricity, only 50% of the total population has access to grid electricity. Firewood is the primary energy source for domestic purposes in rural environments. Due to geographical remoteness, a scattered consumer, higher costs of supply and maintenance, low consumption and low level of households’ income linking the rural areas to national electricity grid is difficult and implausible. In order to solve the energy problem in rural areas, Nepal’s government has initiated the production and distribution of several renewable energy technologies. Among several renewable technologies, micro-hydropower has been one of the most promising and widely adopted decentralized technologies to distribute electricity in rural areas. This article begins with a general overview of energy situation in Nepal. Present status and perspective of micro-hydro plants have also been discussed. Similarly, the dynamics of the relationship between electricity and socio-economic development has been analyzed by means of a typical rural electrification project in Tangting, Nepal by assessing the impacts of electricity on health, education, environment, and income in the village. The community has greatly benefitted from the arrival of environment friendly and affordable electricity. It has been concluded that the task of providing electricity to more remote and isolated villages is still challenging in Nepal. More systematic and comprehensive study supported by research and development is required to extend micro-hydro based electricity in more remote and poor communities of Nepal.     

Renewable energy potential on brownfield sites: A case study of Michigan

Federal priorities are increasingly favoring the replacement of conventional sources of energy with renewable energy. With the potential for a federal Renewable Electricity Standard (RES) legislation, many states are seeking to intensify their renewable energy generation. The demand for wind, solar, geothermal and bio-fuels-based energy is likely to be rapidly expressed on the landscape. However, local zoning and NIMBYism constraints slow down the placement of renewable energy projects. One area where land constraints may be lower is brownfields; whose development is currently constrained by diminished housing, commercial, and industrial property demand. Brownfield sites have the potential for rapid renewable energy deployment if state and national interests in this area materialize. This study investigates the application of renewable energy production on brownfield sites using Michigan as a case study. Wind and solar resource maps of Michigan were overlaid with the brownfield locations based on estimates of brownfield land capacity. The total estimated energy potential available on Michigan’s brownfield sites is 4320 megawatts (MW) of plate capacity for wind and 1535for solar, equating to 43% of Michigan’s residential electricity consumption (using 30% capacity factor). Estimated economic impacts include over $15 billion in investments and 17,500 in construction and long-term jobs.     

A bone-based catalyst for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil

Biodiesel production via transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) with methanol using waste chicken bone-derived catalyst was investigated. The calcium carbonate content in the waste chicken bone was converted to calcium oxide (CaO) at a calcinations temperature of 800°C. The catalysts were prepared by calcination at 300–800°C for 5 h and catalyst characterization was carried out by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area measurement. CaO was used as catalyst for biodiesel production. The results of the optimization imply that the catalyst concentration of 3.0 wt%, methanol to oil ratio of 3:1, and reaction temperature of 80°C for 3 h provide the maximum values of yield in methyl ester production. Reusability of the catalyst from calcined waste chicken bone was studied for four times, with a good yield.     

Banana biomass as potential renewable energy resource: A Malaysian case study

The world has been relying on fossil fuels as its primary source of energy. This unsustainable energy source is not going to last long and thus, gradual shift towards green renewable energy should be practiced. In Malaysia, even though fossil fuel dominates the energy production, renewable energies such as hydropower and biomass are gaining popularity due to the implementation of energy policies and greater understanding on the importance of green energy. Malaysia has been well endowed with natural resources in areas such as agriculture and forestry. Thus, with the availability of feedstock, biomass energy is practical to be conducted and oil palm topped the ranking as biomass source here because of its high production. However, new sources should be sought after as to avoid the over dependency on a single source. Hence, other agriculture biomass should be considered such as banana plant biomass. This paper will discuss on its potential as a new biomass source in Malaysia. Banana plant is chosen as the subject due to its availability, high growth rates, carbon neutrality and the fact that it bears fruit only once a lifetime. Conversion of the biomass to energy can be done via combustion, supercritical water gasification and digestion to produce thermal energy and biogas. The theoretical potential power generation calculated reached maximum of 950 MW meeting more than half of the renewable energy requirement in the Fifth Fuel Policy (Eighth Malaysia Plan 2001–2005). Thus, banana biomass is feasible as a source of renewable energy in Malaysia and also other similar tropical countries in the world.