Effect of kaolin addition on ash characteristics of palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) upon combustion

Palm empty fruit bunch (EFB), a by-product of the palm oil industry, is being recognized as one of the most potential kinds of biomass for energy production in Thailand. However, it has been reported that, in combusting EFB in boilers, some compounds evolving from abundant alkali metals in EFB into gas-phase condense and deposit on low-temperature surfaces of heat exchange equipment, causing fouling and corrosion problems. To come up with a solution to impede the deposition, kaolin, which is abundant in kaolinite (Al₂Si₂O₅(OH)₄), is employed to capture the alkali metal vapours eluding from the combustion region. The experiments were designed to simulate the combustion situations that may take place when kaolin is utilized in two different approaches: premixing of kaolin with EFB prior to combustion and gas-phase reaction of volatiles from EFB with kaolin. The amounts of kaolin used were 8% and 16% by weight based on dry weight of EFB, which were equivalent to one and two times of the theoretical kaolin requirement to capture all potassium originally present in the EFB. The furnace temperatures used for EFB combustion were 700–900 °C and ashes were analyzed by XRF and XRD. The results revealed that, under the kaolin premixing condition, 8% kaolin addition was sufficient to capture the potassium compounds at low temperature, i.e. 700 and 800 °C. However, when the temperature was increased to 900 °C, 16% kaolin addition was needed to completely capture the potassium compounds. The results from gas-phase experiments showed that kaolin can capture volatile potassium at maximum 25% at 900 °C. The XRD results showed, for both experimental cases, the evidence of formation of the high melting temperature potassium-alumino-silicates, which confirmed the reaction of potassium compounds with kaolin. The study also suggests that the premixing method is better than the other because of its higher overall capture efficiency.     

Continuous production of biohydrogen from oil palm empty fruit bunch hydrolysate in tubular photobioreactors

Production of hydrogen by the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides was compared in continuously operated tubular photobioreactors illuminated by natural outdoor sunlight (0.15–66 klux; diurnal cycle) and constant indoor artificial light (10 klux; tungsten lamps). In both cases the operating temperature was 35 °C and the organic carbon source was an acid hydrolysate of oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB), an agroindustrial waste. In the outdoor photobioreactor, under the best production conditions, the daytime feeding rate of the mixed carbon substrate was 48 mL h^?1 and the average pseudo-steady state hydrogen production rate was 36 mL H₂ L^?1 medium h^?1. The cumulative hydrogen production was 430 mL H₂ L^?1 medium. For the indoor photobioreactor fed at the same rate as the outdoor system, the steady state average hydrogen production rate was 43 mL H₂ L^?1 h^?1 and the cumulative hydrogen production was 517 mL H₂ L^?1 medium. Reducing the feed rate to less than 48 mL h^?1, enhanced the biomass concentration, but reduced hydrogen production in both bioreactors. The sunlight-based cumulative hydrogen production was only about 17% less compared to the artificially lit system, but required only 22% of the electrical energy.     

High hydrogen yield and purity from palm empty fruit bunch and pine pyrolysis oils

The benefits of CO₂ sorption enhanced steam reforming using calcined dolomite were demonstrated for the production of hydrogen from highly oxygenated pyrolysis oils of the agricultural waste palm empty fruit bunches (PEFB) and pine wood. At 1 atm in a down-flow packed bed reactor at 600 °C, the best molar steam to carbon ratios were between 2 and 3 using a Ni catalyst. After incorporating steam-activated calcined dolomite as the CO₂ sorbent in the reactor bed, the H₂ yield from the moisture free PEFB oil increased from 9.5 to 10.4 wt.% while that of the pine oil increased from 9.9 to 13.9 wt.%. The hydrogen purity also rose from 68 to 96% and from 54 to 87% for the PEFB and pine oils respectively, demonstrating very substantial sorption enhancement effects.     

Biohydrogen production from pentose-rich oil palm empty fruit bunch molasses: A first trial

Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) was pretreated by local plantation industry to increase the accessibility towards its fermentable sugars. This pretreatment process led to the formation of a dark sugar-rich molasses byproduct. The total carbohydrate content of the molasses was 9.7 g/L with 4.3 g/L xylose (C₅H₁₀O₅). This pentose-rich molasses was fed as substrate for biohydrogen production using locally isolated Clostridium butyricum KBH1. The effect of initial pH and substrate concentration on the yield and productivity of hydrogen production were investigated in this study. The best result for the fermentation performed in 70 mL working volume was obtained at the initial reaction condition of pH 9, 150 rpm, 37 °C and 5.9 g/L total carbohydrate. The maximum hydrogen yield was 1.24 mol H₂/mol pentose and the highest productivity rate achieved was 0.91 mmol H₂/L/h. The optimal pH at pH 9 was slightly unusual due to the presence of inhibitors, mainly furfural. The furfural content decreased proportionally as pH was increased. The optimal experiment condition was repeated and continued in fermentation volume of 200 mL. The maximum hydrogen yield found for this run was 1.21 mol H₂/mol pentose while the maximum productivity was 1.1 mmol H₂/L/h. The major soluble metabolites in the fermentation were n-butyric acid and acetic acid.     

Enhancement of batch biohydrogen production from prehydrolysate of acid treated oil palm empty fruit bunch

Carbohydrates from hydrolyzed biomass has been a potential feedstock for fermentative hydrogen production. In this study, oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) was treated by sulfuric acid in different concentrations at 120 °C for 15 min in the autoclave. The optimal condition for pretreatment was obtained when OPEFB was hydrolyzing at 6% (w/v) sulfuric acid concentration, which gave the highest total sugar of 26.89 g/L and 78.51% of sugar production yield. However, the best conversion efficiency of OPEFB pretreatment was 39.47 at sulfuric acid concentration of 4%. A series of batch fermentation were performed to determine the effect of pH in fermentation media and the potential of this prehydrolysate was used as a substrate for fermentative hydrogen production under optimum pretreatment conditions. The prehydrolysate of OPEFB was efficiently converted to hydrogen via fermentation by acclimatized mixed consortia. The maximum hydrogen production was 690 mL H₂ L⁻¹ medium, which corresponded to the yield of 1.98 molH₂/mol_xylose achieved at pH 5.5 with initial total sugar concentration of 5 g/L. Therefore, the results implied that OPEFB prehydrolysate is prospective substrate for efficient fermentative hydrogen conducted at low controlled pH. No methane gas was detected throughout the fermentation.     

The effect of particle size of CaO and MgO as catalysts for gasification of oil palm empty fruit bunch to produce hydrogen

Finely ground and dried palm oil empty fruit bunch (EFB) was gasified using a temperature-programmed technique which online with mass spectrometer. Temperature-programmed gasification (TPG) was done under 5% oxygen in helium to determine the production of hydrogen, as well as CO, CO₂ and CH₄. TPG was performed from 50–700 °C at the heating rate of 10 °C min⁻¹. The temperature was held for 1 h at the final temperature. The effect of mass ratio of metal oxide:EFB was also investigated. Different particle size of calcium oxide and magnesium oxide were chosen as the catalysts. Bulk calcium oxide has shown to enhance the evolution of hydrogen. Nanosized calcium oxide enhanced the production of hydrogen compared to the bulk one and consequently reduced the production of carbon dioxide. Interestingly, when the mass ratio of metal oxide:EFB was changed to 1:2, nanosized MgO showed very significant increase of H₂ production. All the used catalysts were analyzed by XRD to show the transformation of both bulk and nanosized metal oxides to metal carbonates.     

Liquefaction of coconut fibers in alkaline hot-compressed water

In this study, coconut fibers were pretreated using NaOH solution and liquefied in hot-compressed water. A Box–Behnken design (BBD) was applied to identify the optimum liquefaction condition. The individual and interactive effects of four factors on liquefaction reaction were evaluated by the response surface methodology (RSM). After the pretreatment, the natural fiber crystallinity index (CrI) was increased, as proved by the X-ray diffraction (XRD) diffractograms. The resulting liquid and residues were characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and it was found that the liquefied liquid mainly contained aromatic phenolic compounds and its derivatives.     

Analysis of syngas production rate in empty fruit bunch steam gasification with varying control factors

Biomass gasification is a prevailing approach for mitigating irreversible fossil fuel depletion. In this study, palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) was steam-gasified in a fixed-bed, batch-fed gasifier, and the effect of four control factors—namely torrefaction temperature for EFB pretreatment, gasification temperature, carrier-gas flow rate, and steam flow rate—on syngas production were investigated. The results showed that steam flow rate is the least influential control factor, with no effect on syngas composition or yield. The gasification temperature of biomass significantly affects the composition of syngas generated during steam gasification, and the H₂/CO ratio increases by approximately 50% with an increase in temperature ranging from 680 °C to 780 °C. The higher H₂/CO ratio at a lower gasification temperature increased the energy density of the combustible constituents of the syngas by 3.43%.     

Optimum conditions for maximising pyrolysis liquids of oil palm empty fruit bunches

As production of palm oil is expanding, a more efficient use of oil palm biomass to obtain more energy from oil palm plantations is investigated. The work was carried out on a fluidised bed bench scale fast pyrolysis unit, with the objective of determining the important conditions and key variables which are required to maximise the liquid yield and its quality. The investigation on the impact of reactor temperature, varying residence time by changing the nitrogen flow rate and combined impact of ash content and particle size on the product yields is presented. The properties of the liquid product were analysed and compared with wood derived bio-oil and petroleum fuels. It was found that in all cases the liquid product separated into two phases presenting difficulties for fuel applications, which are critically discussed. Potential solutions are also proposed which include upgrading of the liquid for fuel applications and other useful applications.     

Liquefaction of palm kernel shell in sub- and supercritical water for bio-oil production

The heavy palm oil industry in Malaysia has generated various oil palm biomass residues. These residues can be converted into liquids (bio-oil) for replacing fossil-based fuels and chemicals. Studies on the conversion of these residues to bio-oil via pyrolysis technology are widely available in the literature. However, thermochemical liquefaction of oil palm biomass for bio-oil production is rarely studied and reported. In this study, palm kernel shell (PKS) was hydrothermally liquefied under subcritical and supercritical conditions to produce bio-oil. Effects of reaction temperature, pressure and biomass-to-water ratio on the characteristics of bio-oil were investigated. The bio-oils were analyzed for their chemical compositions (by GC–MS and FT-IR) and higher heating values (HHV). It was found that phenolic compounds were the main constituents of bio-oils derived from PKS for all reaction conditions investigated. Based on the chemical composition of the bio-oil, a general reaction pathway of hydrothermal liquefaction of PKS was postulated. The HHV of the bio-oils ranged from 10.5 to 16.1 MJ/kg, which were comparable to the findings reported in the literature.     

Liquefaction of palm kernel shell to bio-oil using sub- and supercritical water: An overall kinetic study

Palm kernel shell was liquefied using sub- and supercritical water at 330–390 °C and 25 MPa for different reaction times. The overall kinetics of the liquefaction based on the conversion of biomass was analyzed using kinetic equation adopted from the literature, and the kinetic parameters were estimated from the evaluation of the kinetic equation. In this study, the rate constant (k) increased from 0.43 to 0.49 s^?1 with reaction temperature from 330 to 390 °C. The relationship of rate constant (k) and temperature agreed reasonably well with the Arrhenius equation. The activation energy (E) and pre-exponential factor (A) values for the liquefaction process were estimated to be 6.70 kJ/mol and 1.65 s^?1, respectively. In addition, the experimental bio-oil yields with respect to reaction time were well-fitted using the modified Reverchon-Sesti Osseo equation.     

泡桐在水中无催化直接液化生物油的GC-MS分析研究

使用气相色谱-质谱(GC-MS)法,分离和鉴定了泡桐在间歇反应釜中以水为溶剂直接液化制得的生物油的化学成分。用峰面积归一化法分别对水相二氯甲烷可溶物(轻油)和油相丙酮可溶物(重油)检索图谱库,得出各化合物在生物油中的百分含量。研究结果表明:轻油中鉴定出81种组分,其中含量0.6%的有33种且这33种成分的总含量为87.12%,轻油中主要组成为酚类、酮类、脂肪酸及芳香酸、呋喃衍生物、酯和醛;重油中鉴定出100种组分,其中含量0.6%的有37种且这37种成分的总含量为78.66%,重油中主要组成为酚类衍生物、分子量较大的酮类、脂肪酸、芳香酸、酯、苯衍生物和醛。因此,生物油的GC-MS法分析结果为其在化工和能源方面的综合利用提供了基础资料。     

Modelling of the chemical composition of alkaline hot waters

The computer program MEQTP, which calculates the composition of a geothermal water and follows the evolution of the composition during temperature and pressure changes, has been applied to some springs from the south of France. This represents a first attempt at taking pressure changes into account in calculating pressure as well as temperature of the deep reservoirs supplying the thermal springs. The calculated temperature corresponds well with the values obtained by means of classical geothermometers and from previous calculations, in which pressure variations are neglected. Calculation of pressure requires a better understanding of the mechanism (read the mineral) controlling the Mg²⁺ concentration in the geothermal waters.     

Flow in geothermal hot water wells

One of the basic conditions for planning the production of free flowing and airlifted wells is the ability to model correctly the pressure losses incurred in wells with single- and two-phase flows. Based on theories developed in the petroleum industry, as well as the data obtained in the course of Hungarian air-lift water pump tests, the present paper gives a survey of the laws governing vertical flow in high-yield hot water wells of small gas and air content. An explanation is given for the fundamental disagreement between the relationships used to simulate pressure losses in short and long tubing. Modes for calculating the pressure profiles of wells are included.     

余热(水)冷热联供系统在洗浴行业的应用

通过工程实例介绍余热(水)冷热联供系统在洗浴行业的应用,计算各种加热系统理论能耗,比较各系统的经济效益,认为该系统在洗浴行业也将会得到更加广泛的应用和发展。     

High efficiency water electrolysis in alkaline solution

Methods of increasing the efficiency and lowering the capital cost of state-of-the art pressure-type electrolyzers are briefly reviewed. A doubling of current density, accompanied by a halving of the internal resistance, and improved electrode activity are required. The latter may be obtained by catalysis and increases in effective surface area and temperature. An increase in the temperature to 120–130°C appears feasible without giving rise to materials problems provided asbestos separators are not used. All of the above are examined in detail, and it is shown that advanced electrodes with non-precious catalysts will be capable of operating at 1.55 V (I.R. included) at 0.4 A/cm², 120 C and 30–40 atm., which corresponds to isothermal operation.     

Structure of domestic hot water consumption

We analyse the time and volume distributions for hot water consumption using data acquired from seven New Zealand households. This shows that there is a high proportion of low volume draws, 50 per cent yielding less than 2–31, depending on the household. In addition draws tend to be separated by relatively short intervals, 50 per cent following the previous draw by not more than 10–20 min. By use of a dynamic model of the hot water piping we estimate that thermal losses in the piping exceed 20 per cent of the heat energy supplied by the hot water cylinder for average households. We show that the use of pipe insulation may reduce these losses by 5–7 per cent.     

Residential hot water use patterns in Greece

This paper presents the results from the monitoring of hot water consumption in four apartment buildings that are located in Solar Village 3, in Greece. The buildings were monitored centrally for hot water consumption using a Data Acquisition System (DAS). The hot water is prepared in one building by an air-to-water heat pump and in the other three buildings by central solar plants. The main objective of the paper is the development of average residential hot water use patterns based on data from actual measurements conducted over the period September 1990 to August 1991. Average hourly, daily, and yearly profiles, which refer to central DHW systems, are presented and discussed. The average hot water consumption “per person” is also concluded. In addition, the effect of “family size” in hot water use is examined. It was found that the majority of the families consume between 25 and 35 liters per person per day, and the mean annual energy consumption is 0.83 kWh per person per day.     

宾馆的卫生热水循环系统

介绍了一个简洁实用化的宾馆卫生热水供应系统,并通过实例对两种卫生热水供应用系统作了可操作性和投资运行性两方面的比较,结论是减少了初投资的10％和运行电费的60％。