Integrating landscape-based values—Norwegian monitoring of agricultural landscapes

An accumulating body of research identifies the importance of landscape structure for a wide range of countryside interests. Landscape structure reflects the results of policies and practices, and is well-suited as a target for management actions. New landscape metrics represent a potential for indicator-based management, provided such metrics relate consistently to the landscape values of interest. In this paper we propose that aspects of landscape structure, specifically heterogeneity, may be related to landscape-based values such as biodiversity, cultural heritage and human appreciation. Birds and vascular plants correlated well with our index for the heterogeneity of land types, whereas insects did not. Occurrence of prehistoric graves was also associated with land type heterogeneity, though other types of cultural remains were not. Landscape experience seems to be associated with the heterogeneity of landscape space rather than heterogeneity of land types. Different aspects of heterogeneity, scale, and variation over time all contribute to explain how our measures of landscape-based values vary in their relationship to landscape heterogeneity. Successful integration between disciplines in landscape studies depends on having a common operational framework, a shared theoretical basis, and a harmonised approach to data collection.     

Differential response of selected taxa to landscape context and agricultural intensification

Understanding the dynamics of biodiversity in changing agricultural landscapes is a goal for nature conservation and agricultural policies. Agriculture operates at several spatio-temporal levels from field to landscape, and induces differential response of communities according to their ecological traits. Reactions of several taxa to landscape and agricultural changes was conducted along landscape gradients in northern Brittany (France) gathering 14 sites. Landscapes ranged from fine grained areas, with a large proportion of permanent grasslands, wood and hedgerows, to coarse grained ones dominated by crops. Response of communities were either loss of species along the gradient (as for Diptera Chironomidae and Empididae), replacement (Coleoptera Carabidae) and no change in species composition (small mammals). In this paper, we present why these taxa react in such different ways according to their life history traits, their mobility patterns and to which parameters of landscape structure or agriculture intensification they are sensitive. Density of hedgerow networks, and permeability of individual hedgerows determine the spatial distribution of adults Diptera according to their flying ability. Mean body size of carabid beetles significantly decreases along the gradient of agricultural intensification, small species adapted to disturbance replacing large ones that are characteristic of stable habitats. The same small mammal species are found all along the two gradients, but their relative abundance is linked to the importance of crops versus more stable habitats in the landscape.We concluded that species survival in those fine grained agricultural landscapes depends on processes operating at the site scale and defining habitat quality, and processes operating at the landscape and/or metapopulation scale such as landscape modifications in connectivity and habitat availability.     

Changing landscapes, changing disciplines: seeking to understand interdisciplinarity in landscape ecological change research

Transformation of landscapes worldwide in the 20th century, now continuing into the 21st century, has raised global concerns. Given this circumstance, interdisciplinary landscape change studies are focused on the causes and effects of land-use and land-cover dynamics as well as the ecological and social impacts of alternative design, planning, policy, and management schemes on landscapes and regions. In this paper, we are concerned about a particular type of interdisciplinary landscape change research that uses the principles and theories of landscape ecology as an underlying paradigm for explaining changes in landscapes (called landscape ecological change research, or LEC research, in this paper). While landscape ecological change is the focus of collaborative research efforts, the way in which the collaboration itself is carried out is the subject of debate. We present a framework for public consideration based on Lattuca's continuum of interdisciplinarity (2001) that characterizes the key themes, questions, and issues in the debate about the interdisciplinarity–disciplinarity nature of LEC research that are raised by leading scholars in the peer-reviewed literature. The paper presents this continuum, positions the key literature within this continuum, and then presents recommendations for enhancing future interdisciplinary endeavors.     

Ecological networks: A spatial concept for multi-actor planning of sustainable landscapes

In this paper, we propose the ecological network concept as a suitable basis for inserting biodiversity conservation into sustainable landscape development. For landscapes to be ecologically sustainable, the landscape structure should support those ecological processes required for the landscape to deliver biodiversity services for present and future generations. We first show that in multifunctional, human-dominated landscapes, biodiversity conservation needs a coherent large-scale spatial structure of ecosystems. Theory and empirical knowledge of ecological networks provides a framework for the design of such structures. Secondly, ecological networks can bridge the paradox between reserve conservation (fixing nature in space and time) and development, which implies change. This is because ecological networks can change structure without losing their conservation potential. Thirdly, ecological networks facilitate stakeholder decision-making on feasible biodiversity goals. They help to focus on an effective spatial scale. We conclude that extending the ecological network concept with multifunctional indicators is a promising step towards sustainable landscape development and stakeholder decision-making.     

Social, aesthetic and ecological aspects of hedgerows in rural landscapes as a framework for greenways

Hedgerow network landscapes may be considered as greenways, as they provide agronomic, ecological, aesthetic and cultural benefits. They are among the most threatened agricultural landscapes of western Europe. Intensification of agriculture with the conversion of permanent grassland into ploughed land and the use of new machinery leads to the enlargement of fields and the removal of hedgerows surrounding them. There is a growing concern among conservationists, rural managers and the public to maintain these greenways as a framework for landscape sustainability.In France, hedgerow removal may be planned within reallotment programmes that take into account all the land of a municipality. In this planning process, criteria for keeping or clearing woody elements are based on agronomic properties of soil, environmental quality of elements and of the network, and property boundaries. Aesthetic aspects are rarely assessed. As rural landscapes are shifting from an almost unique function of agricultural production toward a multifunction of nature conservation, environmental protection, amenity and production, the conservation of hedgerow networks becomes of greater importance. The goal is now the protection of these greenways to provide not only ecological but also recreational and cultural benefits. In a case study in Brittany, we tried to link these different aspects. Our work is based on interviews and a landscape ecological survey. We found contrasting opinions between farmers and non-farmers concerning the density of the network. Nevertheless, the two groups agree on the necessity to keep greenways as part of their cultural landscape. Most of the people were not aware of the ecological role of hedgerow networks, and perceive them only by their visual properties. We proposed various scenarios based on ecological and aesthetic principles, and defined general guidelines for the design of new landscapes during reallotment programmes. The integration of different points of view by landscape planners is the only way to link visual values to productive or ecological processes, and must be effective in the case of the management of greenways such as hedgerows.     

基于风景园林学科的生物多样性框架简

生态、文化和艺术是风景园林学科的3个重要平台,生态特征是风景园林空间的基本特征之一,生物多样性是将生态特征与风景园林规划设计连接起来的重要桥梁。生物多样性保护与生物多样性规划设计成为风景园林适应新时期发展的重要方向和领域。在风景园林的发展历程中,风景园林师已经为生物多样性规划设计业的理论与实践做出了重要贡献。立足风景园林空间的尺度及其嵌套特点,结合风景园林空间具有的景观构成、景观格局、景观过程和景观感知的动态体系,从城市——区域、城市公园、城市花园、微小绿地与群落4个空间尺度,建立风景园林生物多样性的“C-3P”（构成——格局、过程与感知）体系和框架,旨在构建全面和系统的风景园林生物多样性认知和评价体系。     

The dynamics of tree cover change in a rural Australian landscape

This study investigated the change in tree cover in a 130 000 ha rural landscape near Bathurst, New South Wales, Australia between 1954 and 1989. Using aerial photographs, tree cover was assessed using five cover classifications (<2% cover, 2.1–25%, 25.1–50%, >50% or exotic pine plantation), with the resulting data analysed using a Geographic Information System. Overall, there was a loss of woodland/forest and an increase in the area of cleared land and Pinus radiata plantations over 35 years. Although some regeneration of woodland/forest cover occurred on marginal farmland, the general trend of loss and fragmentation has serious ramifications for nature conservation and agricultural production. The eastern and western portions of the study area exhibited quite different patterns in tree cover change, highlighting the need for examining landscapes at appropriate spatial and temporal scales.     

The role of the spatial dimension within the framework of sustainable landscapes and natural capital

A new paradigm of Natural Capital and Sustainable Landscapes has been suggested. It implies the integration of economic, environmental and social-cultural qualities in a physical setting while focusing on functions in terms of goods and services for people. Due to its anthropocentric perspective it pays less attention to landscape structure and spatial arrangement compared to the widely applied patch-matrix concept. The matrix of land use elements provides the key to understanding land use systems and land use changes and it can play an important role in understanding land use pattern and their dynamics. But one of the remaining constraints for a direct application of landscape ecological concepts in practice is the lack of agreed ways to combine environmental, socio-economic and societal/cultural views. This paper examines both paradigms, asking: does the spatial arrangement of land use types add specific qualities beyond statistical measures of their existence and quantity? For instance, can a landscape be sustainable, as long as 20% of the land use is extensive, 10% is protection area, etc., no matter where the respective patches are, which typical size and shape they have, how connected patches are and how often incompatible land use types are adjacent? This paper elucidates spatial concepts for sustainable landscapes with an emphasis on the role of GIS.     

The coexistence of amenity and biodiversity in urban landscapes

Amenity is a long-standing component of town planning and municipal governance. Biodiversity is a far more recent concept, yet interpreting the conservation mandate in a local context is a significant challenge for landscape and urban planners. This article explores the concepts of amenity and biodiversity and investigates their compatibility in an urbanising world. Their historical expression in law and urban planning is considered, and empirical research on the links between human well-being, green environments and biodiversity is reviewed. We argue that amenity is an underutilised vehicle for achieving biodiversity goals in line with new urban greening paradigms because of its long-standing currency with planning professionals. However, conflict between biodiversity and amenity can arise in practice, depending on a city’s social–ecological context. These challenges can be overcome through setting clear objectives, utilising scientific evidence, engaging with local communities and ensuring landscape policy is sufficiently flexible to accommodate local needs and characteristics.     

Integrating information on river networks, catchments and major forest types: towards the characterisation and analysis of European landscapes

Recent developments in European environmental policies ask for European-wide and harmonised information on the state of our environment as well as on pressures and impacts thereon. The fulfilment of this requirement demands for a holistic analysis of the landscape and the interactions between its various components, including the development of suitable data for the whole area of interest. Forests and water bodies are important entities in this context. In this paper we, therefore, report on the development of European-wide databases for forests, river networks and catchments. Examples of how such data can be combined for analysing specific landscape characteristics such as the percentage of rivers running through forested areas or the distribution of forest categories according to relief characteristics are given for the whole of Italy as well as for three selected catchments.     

References for fragmentation analysis of the rural matrix in cultural landscapes

Next to the problem of fragmented nature, also the fragmentation of the rural matrix in rapidly changing cultural landscapes deserves attention. Because of the multifunctionality of these landscapes, a reflection is needed about the references for fragmentation analysis and interpretation. Flanders (Belgium) is taken as pilot area because of its high degree of urbanisation, road development and intensity of land use. Fragmentation analysis is based on deliberate selections of relevant land use systems in the first place, next on the explicit definition of some past, planned or idealistic reference condition. Differencing or rationing actual and reference landscape structure indicators yields fragmentation maps with enhanced interpretation possibilities for landscape and spatial planning.     

沈阳农业大学园林绿化专业办学情况回顾

沈阳农业大学是我国最早开设园林绿化专业，至今仍继续设立该专业的高等院校之一。回顾沈阳农业大学绿化专业办学的一些情况，以便读者更多的了解我国园林教育事业的历程，从而推动园林绿化教育的发展。     

Biodiversity dynamics: from population and community ecology approaches to a landscape ecology point of view

Species richness and species diversity are classic concepts in ecology. What is new in the science of biodiversity after the Convention on Biological Diversity is: (1) that the emphasis has moved from the species to the ecosystem; (2) that the functional significance of biodiversity has been stressed. Thus, population and community ecology along with landscape ecology, should offer the best theoretical framework to analyse what can be called ‘biodiversity dynamics’.Some promising pathways and areas are emphasized and the very concept of functional diversity is discussed. Species richness, genetic variability and extinction probability are closely linked with landscape traits such as habitat diversity, structural heterogeneity, patch dynamics and perturbations. Thus, it is suggested that landscape ecology hold a central role, since it will allow the response to biodiversity issues in the framework of environmental heterogeneity and patchiness.     

Relationship between landscape visual attributes and spatial pattern indices: A test study in Mediterranean-climate landscapes

The analysis of the relationships between landscape visual quality and landscape structural properties is an active area of environmental perception research. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between landscape spatial pattern and the rating of visual aesthetic quality. Eight landscape photographs were evaluated for 11 visual attributes by 98 respondents. The scores obtained for these 11 attributes were subjected to principal components analysis in order to summarize the qualities used by the respondents and thus determine their visual preferences. For each photograph, three window sizes were defined (with respect to a landcover map) to cover the different areas corresponding to the visual field (foreground, mid-ground and background). The landscape spatial structure for each window was analyzed using spatial metrics. The correlation between each dimension and the spatial pattern indices of the landscape were then calculated. Positive correlations were obtained between visual aesthetic quality and a number of landscape pattern indices. The results suggest that landscape heterogeneity might be an important factor in determining visual aesthetic quality.     

Assessing risk of large-scale habitat conversion in lightly settled landscapes

Conversion of relatively “wild” areas constitutes a rising threat to the ecological integrity of North American landscapes. As developers seek unprotected, amenity-rich lands, conservation planners require methods to recognize risk and prioritize actions. Most development models and processes are incremental, accumulating change over time and space. By contrast, large-scale amenity development can be rapid and extensive, necessitating “rapid assessment” techniques. For undeveloped lakeshores in the Northern Appalachian/Acadian ecoregion (330 000 km²), we developed a geospatial screening process based on four factors: (1) urban area proximity, (2) attractiveness of amenity (size), (3) regulatory gaps in protection, and (4) likelihood that owners will develop. To assess conversion risk, we added developable zones to the 10 783 large lakes and ponds in the ecoregion and assessed risk to these lands based on four factors at two distances from 15 major urban areas in the region. Thirty-eight of 387 landowners were classified most likely to convert their lands through development, and 11 of these accounted for 97.5% of the total high-risk habitat area (625–1118 km²). Nearly all of the at-risk land (94.6%) lay outside of currently settled areas and most (69.1%) under the purview of a single regulatory agency, the Land Use Regulatory Commission of Maine (LURC). Without rigorous planning by such agencies large-scale, highly dispersed, and rapid conversion of lightly settled, amenity-rich forestland threatens habitat degradation at multiple spatial scales, i.e., local ecosystems themselves (e.g., lakes), surrounding landscapes, and regions.     

Bumblebee communities as an indicator for landscape monitoring in the agri-environmental programme

The current article focuses on the possibilities of applying bumblebees as one of the biodiversity indicators in the monitoring and evaluation of the Estonian Agri-Environmental Programme (AEP) at landscape level. The need for agri-environmental indicators arises, at least partially, because the desired state of the environment sought by policy makers may not be directly observable. To develop agri-environmental measures favourable to landscape quality, it is necessary to know more about the relationship between landscape structure and composition and the number of different species. This study tested the relationship between the data sets of landscape elements and bumblebee communities from 11 agricultural areas in Estonia. The localities were divided into two groups: intensively used agricultural areas (IA) (the percentage of arable land was >65%) and less intensively used agricultural areas (LIA) (the percentage of arable land was <45%). The following elements of landscape structure were analysed: buffer zones narrower than 5 m and wider than 5 m, ecotones between cultivated land and broad-leaved forests, ecotones between cultivated land and mixed or coniferous forests, ditches and brooks, fallow land, mixed forests, coniferous forests, broad-leaved forests, bushes, wetlands, cultivated grasslands, pastures, legumes, arable land, semi-natural grasslands. Fifteen bumblebee species were recorded in LIA and 13 in IA. The most widely distributed and abundant species were Bombus lucorum, Bombus pascuorum and Bombus lapidarius. These species dominated in both types of agricultural area. Two species, Bombus jonellus and Bombus hypnorum were found only in LIA. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the landscape elements and the bumblebee species found. Results showed that there was a significant co-structure between the data sets of landscape elements and bumblebee communities. The most important landscape features that correlated with the distribution of the bumblebee species were the ecotone length between cultivated land and forests, and the size of the area covered with mixed forests and wetlands.     

珠三角绿道景观与物种多样性规划初探 以广州和深圳绿道为例

绿道理论的研究与应用具有鲜明的景观生态学基础,绿道规划倡导一种多尺度层级、多目标规划多学科综合的规划方法,在宏观的区域绿道网络规划到地方层面的绿道实践过程中,实现生态优先和以人为本的规划目标与生态保育的统一是珠三角绿道网规划贯穿始终的设计理念与出发点。广州和深圳绿道网络的规划与设计率先将绿道理论运用到建设实践中,是两个值得思考与借鉴的案例。     

当代城市住区景观空间形态之解读

住区景观空间是城市景观空间的子系统,是城市中与居民关系关系最为密切的景观空间。本文通过案例分析与归纳．总结出当代城市住区中景观空间形态的类型与特征,并对其表现形式和现存问题进行了解读,探讨了住区景观空间发展方向。     

基于地理环境的生物多样性分布探讨简

风景园林环境的多样性依赖于地理环境的多样性和生物及生态系统的多样性。基于地理环境和生态学视角的生物多样性是风景园林学科生物多样性的重要理论基础。随着生态环境保护意识的增强和地理学、生态学、风景园林学等学科的深度发展,生物多样性的研究也逐渐受到重视,而且走向多学科融合的特征和途径。基于文献整理分析,探讨地理环境与生物样性之间的关系,从全球尺度论述植物区系、陆地动物和海洋动物的地理分布以及生物多样性热点地区,并分析地质年代和环境条件对生物多样性分布的影响,揭示基于地理学的生物多样性分布特征,并从地理环境的角度建立地理空间与生物多样性之间的关联。