Structure and properties of impact modified polyethylene terephthalate

In this paper, we investigate the orientation behavior of impact modified PET. Core-shell particles, a metallocene polyethylene (mPE) and glycidyl methacrylate modified mPE (gmPE) were blended with PET using single screw extrusion. Morphology, crystallinity, orientation development and mechanical properties of oriented blends were studied following different orientation conditions. It was observed that core-shell impact modifier added to PET does not affectits orientation behavior and that the particles do not deform. Non-reactive mixing with mPE does not affect the orientation developed in PET for the same draw ratio, but the stress levels are affected (higher) due to an earlier crystallization of PET. Reactive blending with gmPE enhances the orientation of PET and the stress levels when orienting are higher than for pure PET, due to an earlier crystallization of PET and strain hardening of mPE being oriented, which indicate a good adhesion at the interface. The elongation at break is affected positively in many cases with the addition of a modifier, particularly gmPE, which is an indication of an improved toughness.     

Effect of hydrostatic pressure on the yield and fracture of polyethylene in torsion

Yield and fracture of polyethylene have been studied in torsion tests under superposed hydrostatic pressures. Two ductile-to-brittle transitions have been observed. At high strain rates and pressures, a conventional ductile-to-brittle transition was found with increasing strain rate and pressure. A second ductile-to-brittle transition was observed at low strain rates with decreasing strain rate. The yield stress showed a region of low, relatively constant, rate dependence at low strain rates, high temperatures and low pressures and a second region of higher strain-rate dependence at high strain rates and pressures. In contrast, the fracture stress was found throughout to have a relatively constant strain-rate dependence of intermediate value between those obtained for the yield stress. These features confirmed that failure can be considered as competition between yield and fracture processes. The fracture stress became lower than the yield stress at both high and low strain rates where brittle fracture was observed, with fully ductile behaviour resulting in intermediate conditions where the fracture stress exceeded the yield stress. The pressure, strain rate and temperature dependence of the yield stress was well described by two Eyring processes acting in parallel, both processes being pressure dependent.     

Microstructural aspects of tensile deformation of high density polyethylene

Abstract

The paper describes tensile flow behaviour and related microstructural aspects of injection moulded polyethylene. The flow stress increased with increase in strain rate indicating that the tensile flow behaviour is sensitive to strain rate. Also, the yield stress exhibited a linear relationship with strain rate and followed the thermal activation concept with the activation volume consistent with the thickness of the lamellar crystallite. The behaviour of mechanically induced surface damage on polyethylene was studied by SEM. At low strain rates, the deformation process was characterised by features that looked like deformation bands. With increase in strain rate and strain, the deformation bands developed into a distinct array of crazes and grew inwards, followed by tearing. Also, with increasing strain rate the crazes multiplied and secondary crazes were generated that were at an angle to the tensile axis. The examination of the morphology of the fracture surface of polyethylene at various strain rates provided an insight into the mode of fracture process. At low strain rates polyethylene exhibited a ductile type of fracture with extreme fibrillation and, at intermediate strain rates, crazing - tearing was the predominant mode of fracture at the edges, while fibrillar failure occurred in the mid-thickness of the fractured surface. But, at higher strain rates the percentage of fibrillation was relatively small in comparison to lower strain rates. The different modes of deformation processes can be represented in the form of mechanical deformation - strain diagrams, which provide a broad perspective of the deformation processes operating in the different regimes.     

The cold drawing of amorphous polyethylene terephthalate

The cold drawing of amorphous polyethylene terephthalate has been studied at constant strain rate over a wide range of temperatures for samples of different molecular weight and different initial molecular orientation (pre-orientation). The natural draw ratio was found to be dependent on pre-orientation, confirming previous studies, and for low degrees of pre-orientation it also decreased with increasing molecular weight or decreasing temperature of draw. For all samples, there was an excellent correlation between the degree of molecular alignment achieved, as determined by optical birefringence, and the draw ratio. The birefringence of any sample could be accurately predicted from the draw ratio on the basis of previously proposed theoretical models for the development of molecular orientation.     

Fatigue propagation behaviour of polystyrene/polyethylene blends

Fatigue crack propagation (FCP) of injection-moulded polystyrene (PS) and 95/5, 85/15 and 70/30 PS/high-density polyethylene (HDPE) blends at loading frequencies of 2 and 20 Hz was studied. The FCP results showed that increasing the HDPE content caused a progressive reduction of the fatigue crack growth rates, especially when a styrene/ethylene– butylene/styrene (SEBS) terpolymer was added as a compatibilizer. Increasing the loading frequency also led to a fatigue crack growth rate reduction. Moreover, the fatigue crack growth rates were lower at a given cyclic stress intensity factor range, K, when the crack propagated normal, instead of parallel, to the melt-flow direction during injection moulding. Fractographic observations indicated that discontinuous growth bands (DGBs), associated with the fracture of crazes in the plastic zone, were present through most or all of the fracture surfaces of the PS/HDPE specimens. In the presence of sufficient HDPE, these DGBs were formed by the initiation, growth and coalescence of large dimples initiated at HDPE particles ahead of the microscopic crack front, similar to a multiple crazing effect. The loading frequency effect on the FCP behaviour of these blends is attributed to a time-dependent deformation process. It is concluded that the FCP behaviour of these blends is strongly affected by the loading direction with respect to the matrix and minor phase orientation, by the presence of a compatibilizer, by the composition of the blend and by the testing conditions. © Chapman & Hall.     

具有高界面压应力的高分子共混物Ⅱ.拉伸过程中形态演化与增强机理

研究了聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯(PET)/聚乙烯(PE)和聚碳酸酯(PC)/PE共混物在拉伸过程中形态的演化和增强机理.结果表明,高界面压应力是共混物在基体加工温度成型时,从成型温度冷却到室温过程中基体收缩比分散相大产生的;两种共混物在拉伸中有不同的形态演化过程:PC粒子原位形成了微纤,粒子与基体间没有明显的界面滑动,而PET粒子只产生较小的塑性变形,成为椭球状粒子,粒子与界面间存在滑动.PC对基体PE的增强效果比PET的更好,因为PC/PE共混物拉伸过程中形成了良好增强作用的原位微纤.在拉伸过程中,PET/PE试样的细颈在靠近非浇口端形成,并从此扩展开.部分拉伸后,PC/PE试样比PET/PE试样的弹性回复大,回复到平衡状态时间长,这是两种共混物分散相变形机理不同引起的.     

PET/PCTG/SiO2 共混材料热性能研究

目的 PET与PCTG和Si O_2共混是提高PET综合性能的一种途径,研究共混材料的热性能的变化规律来为共混材料的共混工艺提供理论基础。方法测定PET与PCTG及不同粒径Si O_2的共混材料的升温和降温DSC分析曲线,研究PCTG和Si O_2的粒径和用量对PET/PCTG/Si O_2共混材料的冷、热结晶性能的影响。结果 PET与PCTG和Si O_2共混,PCTG和Si O_2的加入会降低PET的冷结晶温度,提高热结晶温度,Si O_2用量越大,冷结晶温度降低和热结晶温度提高的幅度越大。结论PCTG和Si O_2对冷、热结晶温度的协同影响较大,Si O_2的粒度对PET/PCTG/Si O_2冷结晶温度影响较小,对热结晶温度影响较大,Si O_2的粒度越小,热结晶温度越高。     

Polycarbonate-linear low density polyethylene blends: Thermal and dynamic-mechanical properties

Blends of polycarbonate (PC) and linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) of different compositions, in the form of slabs obtained by melt extrusion, have been examined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA).DSC measurements show that the melting, crystallization and glass transition temperatures of the two polymeric components in the blends are slightly affected by the composition. On the contrary, large differences are observed in the melting behaviour of layers cut at various depths, parallel to the slab surfaces of samples. This supports the occurrence of different crystal morphologies and distribution of the two components within the samples. The study of the crystallization kinetics from the melt blends shows that the crystallization processes of LLDPE are affected by the presence of PC.The dynamic mechanical analysis indicates that modulus, transitions and relaxational behaviour of the polymer components are scarcely affected by the composition. Some variations of the damping factor have been interpreted as due to the phase heterogeneity of the system, arising from the processing conditions and rheological behaviour of the blends.     

Morphology-tensile behavior relationship in injection molded poly(ethylene terephthalate)/polyethylene and polycarbonate/polyethylene blends (II) Part II Tensile behavior

The tensile behavior of injection molded poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)/polyethylene (PE) and polycarbonate (PC)/PE blends was investigated. For the same blend, due to the difference in the elongated dispersed particle concentration, the specimens molded at higher injection speed had slightly higher tensile strength and modulus than those molded at lower speed. Moreover, the reinforcement effect of PC to PE matrix was more noticeable than PET to PE. For the stress-strain behavior, while the PET/PE blend behaved like a common injection-molded immiscible blend the PC/PE blend unusually underwent twice yielding regardless of the cross head speed. For the PET/PE blend, obvious debonding between the dispersed PET particles and the matrix PE occurred upon elongation, resulting in large grooves and voids behind the particles. The PET particles experienced slight plastic deformation from spheres to ellipsoids. The stress whitening first appeared in the necking zone then extended along cold drawing zone. For the PC/PE blend, the PC particles in the core layer experienced considerable plastic deformation throughout the tensile test. Consequently, most of PC particles in the fractured specimen were deformed into fibers. Owing to comparatively high amount of injection-induced fibers that distributed or transferred the external stress, the specimen of PC/PE blend first deformed evenly in the entire tested zone, characterized by stress whitening in the entire specimen. Then after the first yielding, the stress decreased slowly while the elongation continued. When the elongation reached a certain point, the fibers in the sub-skin layer could no longer endure the external stress, and accordingly the second yield took place. Additionally, the fibrillation of the spherical PC particles in the core layer appeared right after the second yielding point.     

PC／PET共混物的非等温结晶动力学

采用等速变温ＤＳＣ法对ＰＣ／ＰＥＴ共混体系的非等温结晶动力学进行了研究，结果表明，从玻璃态结晶时，随着ＰＣ含量的增加，ＰＥＴ组分的结晶速率先增加后降低。耐从熔体结晶时，体系的结晶速率随着ＰＣ含量的增加而增加，讨论了ＰＣ对ＰＥＴ组分结晶过程的影响。     

高模量涤纶纤维的结构弱节特征及力学行为

采用断面形态特征与纤维对应拉伸曲线组合的对比分析方法,讨论了歼雉的结构弱节及拉伸行为。结果表明,涤纶纤维的弱节主要是表层缺陷及其扩展所引起的,其力学性能为低应力、低应变、低断裂功特征。     

Effect of Cold Drawing on Microstructure and Corrosion Performance of High-Strength Steel

This paper deals with the effect of cold drawing on a high-strength steel in wire form with pearlitic microstructure. Cold drawing produces a preferential orientation of the pearlite lamellae aligned parallel to the cold drawing direction, resulting in anisotropic properties with regard to fracture behaviour in air and aggressive environments (stress corrosion cracking). While the hot rolled bar has a randomly oriented microstructure in both transverse and longitudinal sections, the fully drawn wire presents a randomly oriented appearance in the transverse cross-section, but a marked orientation in the longitudinal cross-section. These microstructural characteristics affect the time-dependent behaviour of the steels when a crack is present in a corrosive or hydrogen environment and influences both the subcritical crack growth rate, the time to failure and the crack propagation path. It is shown that in the strongly drawn steels the crack changes its propagation path, and a micromechanical model is proposed to explain this behaviour. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Interlaminar fracture of commingled-fabric-based GF/PET composites

A 45:55 weight% mixture of commingled glass/polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fabric was selected to study the relationships between material microstructure, Mode I and Mode II interlaminar fracture toughnesses and failure mechanisms. Composite laminates subjected to different cooling histories were manufactured within a steel mould using a laboratory heat press. Mode I and Mode II interlaminar fracture tests were performed using double cantilever beam and end-notched flexure specimens. PET matrix morphology appeared to be sensitive to the thermal histories, although this occurred on a subspherulitic scale (in contrast to observations made with polypropylene-based composites). The spherulitic textures were generally very fine and no evidence of interspherulitic fracture paths could be identified. When the composites were subjected to low cooling rates or an isothermal crystallization process, many small matrix cracks developed between fibres within the reinforcing bundles. The lower the cooling rate, the higher the density of matrix cracks per unit volume of material. The interlaminar fracture toughness in the laminates with slow cooling rates was much lower than in the case where a quasi-quenched condition was applied.     

Craze testing for tough polyethylene

It has been generally accepted that all the modes of fracture, including rapid crack growth, quasi-static fracture and slow crack growth in polyethylene are associated with the behaviour of the craze ahead of the crack tip. For recently developed tough pipe grade polyethylene materials, the need for knowledge of the craze behaviour seems particularly important in understanding the fracture behaviour of various modes since, with the low Young's moduli and low yield stresses, large craze zones tend to make it difficult to interpret the test data using a fracture mechanics approach. A novel test method is described in this paper which is designed for craze generation and craze behaviour analysis under plane strain conditions. The test method has been proved to be suitable both for quasi-static fractures and for long term fractures, and hopefully for rapid fractures, in tough polyethylene materials. The test data of yield stress against time to yielding show a clear brittle ductile transition which implies different fracture mechanisms in short term fracture and in long term fracture.     

Effects of strain rate and temperature on dynamic mechanical behaviour and microstructural evolution in aluminium–scandium (Al–Sc) alloy

Abstract

The present study applies a compressive split Hopkinson bar to investigate the mechanical response, microstructural evolution and fracture characteristics of an aluminium–scandium (Al–Sc) alloy at temperatures ranging from ? 100 to 300°C and strain rates of 1·2 × 10³, 3·2×10³ and 5·8 × 10³ s^?1. The relationship between the dynamic mechanical behaviour of the Al–Sc alloy and its microstructural characteristics is explored. The fracture features and microstructural evolution are observed using scanning and transmission electron microscopy techniques. The stress–strain relationships indicate that the flow stress, work hardening rate and strain rate sensitivity increase with increasing strain rate, but decrease with increasing temperature. Conversely, the activation volume and activation energy increase as the temperature increases or the strain rate decreases. Additionally, the fracture strain reduces with increasing strain rate and decreasing temperature. The Zerilli–Armstrong fcc constitutive model is used to describe the plastic deformation behaviour of the Al–Sc alloy, and the error between the predicted flow stress and the measured stress is found to be less than 5%. The fracture analysis results reveal that cracks initiate and propagate in the shear bands of the Al–Sc alloy specimens and are responsible for their ultimate failure. However, at room temperature, under a low strain rate of 1·2 × 10³ s^?1 and at a high experimental temperature of 300°C under all three tested strain rates, the specimens do not fracture, even under large strain deformations. Scanning electron microscopy observations show that the surfaces of the fractured specimens are characterised by transgranular dimpled features, which are indicative of ductile fracture. The depth and density of these dimples are significantly influenced by the strain rate and temperature. The transmission electron microscopy structural observations show the precipitation of Al₃Sc particles in the matrix and at the grain boundaries. These particles suppress dislocation motion and result in a strengthening effect. The transmission electron microscopy analysis also reveals that the dislocation density increases, but the dislocation cell size decreases, with increasing strain rate for a constant level of strain. However, a higher temperature causes the dislocation density to decrease, thereby increasing the dislocation cell size.     

Phenomenological aspects of the double yield of polyethylene and related copolymers under tensile loading

The double yield point is shown to be a common feature to polyethylene and ethylene copolymers, regardless of the crystallinity level. Particular attention has been paid to the influence of draw temperature and strain rate which unambiguously indicate a combination of two thermally activated rate processes. Various thermal treatments have been investigated in order to check the influence of the crystal thickness distribution and the chain topology on the yield behaviour. Isothermal crystallization at high temperature is shown to have little effect compared with variations of crystallinity, temperature and strain rate in the case of compression-moulded samples. On the other hand, a strong effect has been observed in the case of solution crystallization which is well known to affect the chain-folding topology. The results are fairly consistent with the previous proposal by Takayanagi that (1) two processes govern the plastic deformation of the crystalline lamellae in semi-crystalline polymers, and (2) these processes are closely related to the viscoelastic relaxations in the crystal. The crystalline lamellae may deform plastically through sliding of crystalline blocks (brittle process) and/or homogeneous shear (ductile process). In order to account for the dependency of the brittle-to-ductile transition on the copolymer structure and crystallization method, a molecular model is put forward on the basis of the chain topology concepts borrowed from our former investigations on the tensile drawing and the melting behaviour of ethylene copolymers.     

分散相对高分子合金增韧及脆/韧转变的影响

发生脆／韧转变的合金材料,其刚性体分散相ＣＰＰ在基质形成的静水应力的作用下沿拉抻方向发生了塑性形变。分散相无论是刚性体还是弹性体,在基质形成的静水压应力的作用下均可通过形变吸收能量使合金材料增韧;同时分散相也可作为应力集中剂引发基质产生银纹和屈服剪切带,使合金材料增韧,脆／韧转变过程提前,当分散相模量较时,后一种作用为主。随着分散相模量的增加,前一种作用的影响逐渐增加,并最终转变成为主导作用。     

界面粘结对PET／尼龙66共混物结晶行为和力学性能的影响

利用ＳＥＭ、ＤＳＣ等方法，比较了尼龙６和尼龙６６对ＰＥＴ结晶的异相成核作用，研究了界面粘结状况对ＰＥＴ／尼龙６６共混物结晶行为及力学性能的影响。结果表明，尼龙６６对ＰＥＴ结晶的成核能力优于尼龙６。虽然界面粘结听改善不利于ＰＥＴ／尼龙６６共混物的结晶，但是经明显提高了共混物的力学性能。     

Toughening effect of maleic anhydride grafted linear low density polyethylene on linear low density polyethylene

The blend of linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) and maleic-anhydride grafted LLDPE with the grafting degree of 1.3% and the gel content of 27.0% (designated as LLDPE/MA-PE) was melt-compounded. Their thermal, rheological, and mechanical properties were studied. The crystallization temperature and crystallization rate of LLDPE/MA-PE blends increase due to the nucleation of MA-PE, their crystallinity is between those of LLDPE and MA-PE due to the balance between the nucleation of MA-PE and simultaneously produced more defects. The addition of MA-PE increases the apparent viscosity of blend melts, but the shear-sensitivity of blends provides them with melting processing. Interestingly, the lamellar crystallites induced by MA-PE decrease the tensile yielding strength of LLDPE/MA-PE blends. During the impact fracture, the formation of oriented crystalline lamellae parallel to the crack front and perpendicular to the crack flank, leads to the deformation and microstriations in LLDPE/MA-PE blends. Subsequently, toughness of LLDPE/MA-PE blends is improved.     

Effect of cold drawing on environmentally assisted cracking of cold-drawn steel

The fracture behaviour in air and aggressive environments of two eutectoid steels in the forms of hot-rolled bar and cold drawn wire has been compared to elucidate the consequences of cold drawing on their susceptibility to environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) in aqueous environments. Cold drawing produces a microstructural effect on the material: a preferential orientation of the pearlite lamellae aligned parallel to the cold-drawing direction, resulting in anisotropic properties with regard to fracture behaviour in air and aggressive environments. The main consequence is the change in crackpropagation direction approaching that of the wire axis (cold-drawing direction or main average orientation of the pearlite lamellae) and producing a mixed-mode state. The results reported provide insight into the macro- and micro-mechanical effects of cold drawing on the fracture and EAC-behaviour of eutectoid pearlitic steels.