On the AHCPR Depression in Primary Care guidelines: Further considerations for practitioners.

The majority of cases of clinical depression go unrecognized and untreated, despite the fact that depression is an eminently treatable disorder. The Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR) recently published a set of clinical practice guidelines focused on depression in primary care settings. The review of the literature on which the guidelines are based is thorough and appropriate and should enhance the detection of depression and the quality of pharmacotherapy for depression. However, the guidelines encourage primary care physicians to provide pharmacotherapy to their depressed patients as the 1st line of treatment. The wisdom of this recommendation is questioned and revisions to the guidelines are suggested. Specifically, patients should be informed of the broad array of treatment options available and provided with a more balanced presentation of the potential benefits of psychotherapy for depression. Patients should decide which treatment alternative they wish to undergo. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Late-life depression in primary care: where do we go from here?

One quarter of elderly patients in the primary care physician's office experience serious depressive symptoms. Despite efforts over the past 20 years to increase detection of late-life depression in primary care settings, patient outcomes have not improved. Undertreatment remains seriously problematic. Current efforts to improve recognition have included the development of depression practice guidelines, Depression Awareness Recognition and Treatment (D/ART) program, educational programs, and rudimentary outcomes measures. Screening tools for depression, such as the Geriatric Depression Scale, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies--Depressed, and Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia, have also been developed to help clinicians screen for depressive symptoms in both ambulatory and inpatient settings. However, to improve clinical outcomes, increased research efforts should focus upon physicians' attitudes and practice patterns, effective treatments for minor depression, and effective ways to assess patients' perceptions of depression, as well as ways to identify age-specific barriers to treatment adherence. In addition, incorporating valid outcome measures into the primary care clinical setting will be crucial to measure the impact of our treatments.     

Screening older adults for depression in primary care settings.

Primary care is a logical environment for depression recognition in older adults. Most older adults are diagnosed and treated for depression by primary care providers. Recognition systems for depression in this setting are particularly needed because the prevalence of depression in older primary care patients may range from 7% to 36%, depending on the instrument and diagnostic criteria used. Implementing systematic detection systems in primary care settings has proven difficult. In one study, only one third of all physicians surveyed used any formal screening tool. Though a number of barriers to recognition of depression have been identified, the authors focus their discussion in this article on two, time and patient factors, and review two screening instruments, the Geriatric Depression Scale--Short Form and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, that may be able to address these factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Short-term outcomes of detected and undetected depressed primary care patients and depressed psychiatric patients

The aims of this study were to determine whether detection of major depression in primary care was associated with improved outcome, and to compare the 4.5 month outcomes of detected and undetected depressed primary care patients and depressed psychiatric patients. Primary care patients with major depression were recruited from the practices of 50 family physicians in Southeastern Michigan using a two-stage selection procedure employing the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D) and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID); clinician detection of depression was ascertained by response to a direct query on a rating form. Depressed patients seeking treatment in an outpatient psychiatric setting also received the CES-D and the SCID. Data on patient demographics and clinical characteristics were obtained for both primary care and psychiatric patients. Initial and 4.5 month scores on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D) were obtained for 34 undetected and 25 detected depressed primary care and 55 depressed psychiatric patients. Improvement in depression over time was assessed by the change in HAM-D scores over the 4.5 months. The three groups did not differ in initial severity. Both psychiatric and undetected primary care patients showed significant improvement at 4.5 months, whereas detected primary care patients did not improve. At 4.5 months there were no differences in mean HAM-D scores between undetected, depressed primary care patients and depressed psychiatric outpatients. This result did not change after controlling for age and severity of depression at initial presentation, nor did it change after exclusion of cases of mild depression to control for a possible "floor effect." However, differences among groups in the stage of depressive episodes may have affected this comparison. These findings suggest that an exclusive focus on increasing detection of depression in primary care patients is unlikely to improve outcomes, and that undetected depression among primary care patients does not necessarily represent poor quality of care. Although depressed psychiatric patients in this study had better outcomes than detected depressed primary care patients, the presence of unmeasured differences among groups in the stage of the depressive episode makes it impossible to determine whether treatment of depression by psychiatrists is superior to that provided by primary care physicians. These findings should stimulate efforts to examine a more comprehensive model for detection and treatment of depression in primary care.     

Primary care in psychiatry residency training

The author summarizes patient perspectives and government initiatives that have fostered closer medicine-psychiatry cooperation and more comprehensive treatment of patients. Despite the growing numbers of people requiring more formal mental health care, most patients are being treated by primary health care providers. This trend will continue as long as there is a decline in the number of medical students entering psychiatry. The author summarizes several general principles that psychiatry residency program directors should consider in designing primary care experiences for their residents and for medical students rotating on their services: longitudinal primary care experiences in organized medical care settings, training in basic medical principles and techniques, and instruction in the biopsychosocial model of disease. The author also recommends there specific training experiences for psychiatry residents that would enhance their ability to provide more effective mental health services to primary care physicians and their patients: consultation psychiatry, primary mental health care, and general psychiatry. The author concludes that medical students, through their contact with primary care-oriented psychiatry residency programs, would be more attracted to psychiatry as a specialty choice and that residents, upon completion of training, would be more inclined to practice in primary care settings.     

Interpersonal psychotherapy for co-occurring depression and chronic pain.

Up to 37% of individuals experience chronic pain during their lifetimes. Approximately one fourth of primary care patients with chronic pain also meet criteria for major depression. Many of these individuals fail to receive psychotherapy or other treatment for their depression; moreover, when they do, physical pain is often not addressed directly. Women, socioeconomically disadvantaged individuals, African Americans, and Latinos all report higher rates of pain and depression compared with other groups. This article describes a version of interpersonal psychotherapy tailored for patients with comorbid depression and chronic pain, interpersonal psychotherapy for depression and pain (IPT-P). IPT-P potentially could be delivered to many patient populations in a range of clinical settings, but this article focuses on its delivery within primary care settings for socioeconomically disadvantaged women. Adaptations include a brief 8-session protocol that incorporates strategies for anticipating barriers to psychotherapy, accepting patients' conceptualization of their difficulties, encouraging patients to consider the impact of their pain on their roles and relationships, emphasizing self-care, incorporating pain management techniques, and flexible scheduling. In addition, IPT-P is designed as an adjunct to usual medical pain treatment, and seeks to engage non–treatment-seeking patients in psychotherapy by focusing on accessibility and relevance of the intervention to concerns common among patients with pain. Identifying patients with comorbid depression and chronic pain and offering IPT-P as a treatment option have the potential to improve clinical outcomes for individuals with depression and chronic pain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluating suicide risk in the medically ill patient

Common medical conditions, treatments, medications, and depression can increase the risk of suicide, which is the eighth leading cause of death in the United States. Health care providers are in key positions to prevent suicide because most people seek medical treatment for physical symptoms and they give clues before they commit suicide. Unfortunately, suicide risk typically remains undetected because suicide clues, including depression, are overlooked. This article reviews assessment of suicide risk, incidence of completed suicide, and interventions in primary care settings. Suicide lethality, therapeutic strategies, and referrals are considered. Depression is discussed because it is the most common precipitant of suicide in primary care.     

Health care for the whole person: Research update.

Quality health care must be informed by the best available scientific knowledge. This article offers research evidence supporting "health care for the whole person." We present an integrative biopsychosocial framework that can serve as a useful foundation for translational research endeavors and the development, evaluation, and dissemination of evidence-based health and mental health interventions. Pain and depression are used as exemplars of the biopsychosocial model. Empirical support for mental health interventions in primary care settings is highlighted, with particular emphasis on the treatment of depression across the life span. Research, practice, and policy implications based on the extant evidence base for health care for the whole person are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An overview of mental health services for the elderly

Psychiatric distress is substantially prevalent among elderly individuals, particularly in the primary care and institutional settings, where most older persons receive mental health care. Barriers to care from providers include negative attitudes and stigmatization and poor recognition by general health care professionals. When psychiatric disorders are recognized, the intensity and duration of treatment provided is generally below standards for adequacy. Further research can determine the impact of patient, caregiver, and provider factors on treatment provision and on patient adherence to treatment. Assessment of factors influencing the treatment process are needed to ensure that treatments provided in the real world approximate the efficacy established in controlled clinical trials.     

The education of depressed primary care patients: what do patients think of interactive booklets and a video?

BACKGROUND: Clinicians, policy makers, and health care administrators are attempting to improve depression outcomes in the primary care setting. Despite positive evidence about the efficacy of self-help materials and psychoeducational interventions, use of educational materials designed for the primary care patient are receiving little attention in present depression initiatives. The present study describes the use and evaluation of three educational materials by depressed primary care patients. METHODS: As a part of a randomized control trial, depressed primary care patients were identified by primary care physicians and randomized to a clinical trial exploring a new method of treating depression. Patients assigned to the new method of treatment received a package of educational materials at the time of the baseline interview. These materials included two brief interactive booklets (medication booklet, behavioral health booklet) and a short video. The present analysis concerns data obtained from 108 intervention patients in a telephone survey conducted 1 week after they received the package of educational materials. RESULTS: Approximately three quarters of the subjects reported that they read or viewed all of the educational products. The majority rated the products as somewhat to significantly helpful: medication booklet 81%; behavioral health booklet 82%; and video 69%. Previously reported results include findings of significantly better medication adherence and improved clinical outcomes by patients with major depression who received a primary care intervention that included the educational products discussed in this paper. CONCLUSIONS: Educational materials may play a significant role in improving depression treatment outcomes in the primary care setting.     

The treatment of depression in older adults in the primary care setting: An evidence-based review.

The objective of this study was to conduct an evidence-based review of treatments for depression in older adults in the primary care setting. A literature search was conducted using PsycINFO and Medline to identify relevant, English language studies published from January 1994 to April 2004 with samples aged 55 and older. Studies were required to be randomized controlled trials that compared psychosocial interventions conducted within the primary care setting with "usual care" conditions. Eight studies with older adult samples met inclusion criteria and were included in the review. Two treatment models were evident: Geriatric Evaluation Management (GEM) clinics and an approach labeled integrated health care models. Support was found for each model, with improvement in depressive symptoms and better outcomes than usual care; however, findings varied by depression severity, and interventions were difficult to compare. Further efforts to improve research and clinical care of depression in the primary care setting for older adults are needed. The authors recommend the use of interdisciplinary teams and more implementation of psychosocial treatments shown to be effective for older adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Angiocardiographic digital still images compressed via irreversible methods: concepts and experiments

OBJECTIVE: Primary care occupies a strategic positive in the evaluation, treatment, and prevention of the mental disturbances of later life. This article highlights four themes that are crucial to understanding mental disturbances among older adults: 1) subsyndromal depression, 2) coexisting depression and anxiety, 3) comorbidity of depression and chronic medical conditions, and 4) risk factors for cognitive impairment. METHOD: The literature was selectively reviewed for each theme to ask the central question, "What can primary care physicians learn about mental disturbances of their older patients from epidemiologic and community studies?" RESULTS: The primary care setting itself is an important venue for an examination of aging issues and mental health. Workers in the "middle ground of psychiatric epidemiology"--primary health care--have not yet reached a full appreciation for the value of research in the primary care setting for enhancing our understanding of the mental disturbances of late life, and how these intersect with other salient factors. CONCLUSIONS: Primary care physicians and others who work in primary care should advocate for further mental health integration and research in primary care. Research is needed that will lead to new ways of maximizing the health and quality of life of older adults and their families.     

Behavior Therapy for Depressed Cancer Patients in Primary Care.

Major depression is a common psychiatric disorder among cancer patients and is associated with psychosocial impairment and decreased quality of life. Although some research has explored psychological interventions with cancer patients, outcome studies investigating the benefits of behavior therapy among cancer patients with well diagnosed depression are nonexistent. The present study was a preliminary clinical trial (n=6) used to assess the effectiveness of a Brief Behavioral Activation Treatment for Depression (BATD) among depressed cancer patients in primary care. Results revealed strong treatment integrity, good patient compliance, excellent patient satisfaction with the BATD protocol, and significant pre-post treatment gains across measures assessing depression, quality of life, and medical outcomes. These gains were associated with strong effect sizes and were maintained at 3-month follow up. BATD may represent a practical primary care treatment that may remedy problems associated with traditional psychosocial interventions. Study limitations and future research directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Treatment of depression by obstetrician-gynecologists: a survey study

OBJECTIVE: We performed an exploratory survey of depression diagnosis, treatment, and patient referral patterns by Fellows of ACOG. We also examined obstetrician-gynecologists' professional training in the management of clinical depression. METHODS: We sent a questionnaire to a total of 1370 ACOG Fellows. Sixty percent of the surveys were returned. RESULTS: As a group, obstetrician-gynecologists reported diagnosing an average of four new cases of depression per month. Within the overall sample, the number of new diagnoses of depression made each month was significantly greater for those defining themselves as primary care physicians than for those defining themselves as specialists. When treating depression pharmacologically, obstetrician-gynecologists reported that they overwhelmingly (74% of the time) chose selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants. Ninety-five percent of obstetrician-gynecologists reported that they referred severely depressed patients to a mental health professional. A majority of respondents neither received residency training (80%) nor completed a continuing medical education course (60%) on the treatment of clinical depression in women. CONCLUSION: Obstetrician-gynecologists who describe themselves as primary care physicians make significantly more diagnoses of depression than those considering themselves specialists. Studies further to assess obstetrician-gynecologists' management of depression and better to define needs for professional education are warranted.     

Basal expression, subcellular distribution, and up-regulation of the proto-oncogene c-JUN in the rat dentate gyrus after unilateral entorhinal cortex lesion

OBJECTIVE: To compare perceived current mental health and disablement between primary care and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients, and to study social support and stress and severity of illness as possible determinants of mental health and disablement. METHOD: Observational cross-sectional analysis of 414 primary care patients in a rural community health center and 125 ESRD patients requiring hemodialysis in two community dialysis units. The Duke Health Profile (DUKE) anxiety-depression scale was used to assess mental health; the DUKE disability scale, to indicate disablement; the Duke Social Support and Stress Scale, to measure support and stress; and the Duke Severity of Illness Scale, to rate severity of illness. RESULTS: Perceived current mental health in terms of anxiety and depression symptoms was worse for primary care than for ESRD patients, and perceived current disablement was no different for the two groups. Patients' perception of their health status and of stress from family members were more closely associated with their level of anxiety and depression symptoms than were their diagnostic profiles or overall severity of illness. In turn, their level of anxiety and depression symptoms was the principal correlate of their disablement. CONCLUSIONS: The demonstration of strong relationships among anxiety and depression symptoms, disablement, and family stress in these two very different patient populations should stimulate further research and motivate clinicians to evaluate all three parameters as part of routine patient care.     

Review of studies that compare the quality of cardiovascular care in HMO versus non-HMO settings

OBJECTIVES: The authors compared the quality of cardiovascular care in health maintenance organizations (HMOs) versus traditional insurance arrangements through an analysis of existing literature. METHODS: Data were derived from all peer-reviewed studies published through November 1995 that used process or outcome measures to evaluate the quality of cardiovascular care in HMO versus non-HMO settings. A standardized form was used to extract information from each study on: condition studied, study time frame, type of study design, type of comparison groups, characteristics of patients and physicians, process and outcome measures used, data collection methods, reliability and validity of quality measurements, risk adjustment techniques, findings about quality of care, summary of other findings, study limitations, and other comments that explained the context of the research. RESULTS: Seven of the 11 studies that examined process measures for cardiovascular care in HMO versus non-HMO patients found more differences in one or more process measures that favored HMOs than non-HMOs. Seven of the 10 studies that examined outcome measures found no statistically significant differences in patient care between HMO and non-HMO settings. The other three studies presented contradictory results. CONCLUSIONS: The existing literature suggests that the outcomes of care for cardiovascular conditions do not differ between HMO and non-HMO settings, although selected measures of the process of cardiovascular care are actually better in HMO than in non-HMO settings.     

Biosynthesis of the ansamycin antibiotic rifamycin: deductions from the molecular analysis of the rif biosynthetic gene cluster of Amycolatopsis mediterranei S699

Depression is a common disorder which causes intense personal suffering and socio-occupational dysfunction. It also imposes a heavy economic burden on society. It has been shown that between 29% and 46% of depressed patients fail to respond adequately to antidepressant medication. Treatment-resistant depression may contribute to the morbidity and mortality associated with affective illness. When treatment resistance is suspected, the patient's history should be reevaluated particularly regarding diagnostic subtypes and comorbidity. An assessment of treatment adequacy in terms of dose, duration and compliance should also be made. Treatment strategies for treatment-resistant depression should be systematic and empirically grounded because of the risk of increased resistance and loss of time in case of a random trial-and-error approach, and the inherent risks in certain novel strategies. A stepped care approach to treatment-resistant depression involves optimization of the current drug under trial, augmentation with drugs such as lithium and triiodothyronine, and switching to other somatic therapies such as electroconvulsive therapy and monoamine inhibitors. Only if these strategies fail, should novel treatments such as the use of venlafaxine, antidepressant combinations and augmentation with sleep deprivation be considered. Experimental strategies such as the use of antiglucocorticoids and sex hormones, which carry considerable risk, should be restricted to research settings. Somatotherapy should be combined in all cases with depression-specific psychotherapy. Psychosurgery should be considered only in truly intractable cases. Rational and energetic treatment can adequately help a large majority of patients with treatment-resistant depression.     

Psychiatry and the primary care physician

Psychiatry makes an important contribution to the training and practice of primary care physicians by emphasizing a holistic approach to patient care, by teaching psychiatric skills and by providing knowledge that enables primary care physicians to give basic psychological care to the large numbers of their patients who need it. Consultation-liaison psychiatry and psychiatry education programs for medical students, both of which are given high priority for support by the Psychiatry Education Branch of National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), are model settings in which to teach the psychiatric aspects of primary care.     

Triptorelin acetate administration in early pregnancy: case reports and review of the literature

OBJECTIVE: The report estimates the treatment costs, cost-offset effects, and cost-effectiveness of Collaborative Care of depressive illness in primary care. STUDY DESIGN: Treatment costs, cost-offset effects, and cost-effectiveness were assessed in two randomized, controlled trials. In the first randomized trail (N = 217), consulting psychiatrists provide enhanced management of pharmacotherapy and brief psychoeducational interventions to enhance adherence. In the second randomized trial (N = 153). Collaborative Care was implemented through brief cognitive-behavioral therapy and enhanced patient education. Consulting psychologist provided brief psychotherapy supplemented by educational materials and enhanced pharmacotherapy management. RESULTS: Collaborative Care increased the costs of treating depression largely because of the extra visits required to provide the interventions. There was a modest cost offset due to reduced use of specialty mental health services among Collaborative Care patients, but costs of ambulatory medical care services did not differ significantly between the intervention and control groups. Among patients with major depression there was a modest increase in cost-effectiveness. The cost per patient successfully treated was lower for Collaborative Care than for Usual Care patients. For patients with minor depression. Collaborative Care was more costly and not more cost-effective than Usual Care. CONCLUSIONS: Collaborative Care increased depression treatment costs and improved the cost-effectiveness of treatment for patients with major depression. A cost offset in specialty mental health costs, but not medical care costs, was observed. Collaborative Care may provide a means of increasing the value of treatment services for major depression.