Smart Cities and Mobility: Does the Smartness of Australian Cities Lead to Sustainable Commuting Patterns?

ABSTRACT

Smart cities have become a popular concept because they have the potential to create a sustainable and livable urban future. Smart mobility forms an integral part of the smart city agenda. This paper investigates “smart mobility” from the angle of sustainable commuting practices in the context of smart cities. This paper studies a multivariate multiple regression model within a panel data framework and examines whether increasing access to broadband Internet connections leads to the choice of a sustainable commuting mode in Australian local government areas. In this case, access to the Internet is used as a proxy for determining urban smartness, and the use of different modes of transport including working at home is used to investigate sustainability in commuting behavior. The findings show that an increasing access to broadband Internet reduces the level of working from home, public transport use, and active transport use, but increases the use of private vehicles, perhaps to overcome the fragmentation of work activities the Internet creates. How to overcome the need for car-based travel for fragmented work activities while increasing smartness through the provisioning of broadband access should be a key smart city agenda for Australia to make its cities more sustainable.     

Sustainability assessment of cities: SDGs and GHG emissions

ABSTRACT

The United Nations’ (UN) sustainable development goals (SDGs), the core of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the UN Paris Agreement, were adopted in 2015. Involvement of not only national governments but also all other stakeholders including local governments is important to promote sustainable development and to achieve the goals. The question arises, therefore, of what methods should be used to best implement and assess sustainability issues at a local level. In this light, a new version of Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environment Efficiency (CASBEE), CASBEE for Cities, is introduced for assessing the sustainability of cities and communities around the world based on SDG indicators and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The tool allows users to understand the sustainability of cities and communities based on quality (Q) and environmental load (L) perspectives. The sustainability assessments show that cities in developed countries tend to have good grades for Q, but bad grades for L, while cities in developing countries tend to have the opposite trend. This will assist cities and communities in both developed and developing countries to understand urgent problems and to identify effective solutions for sustainable development.     

“Mapping” Smart Cities

ABSTRACT

Smart cities are designed to use data to optimize resources, maintain sustainability, and improve people’s quality of life. While many urban technologies are employed to make cities “smart,” one constellation of technologies has been less examined in the academic literature—digital maps and the spatial data infrastructure. This paper is an attempt to systematically review the functions and evolution of digital maps and the spatial data infrastructure, with examples from Asia and beyond, in supporting and making smart cities possible. Based on the conceptual framework and empirical case studies, four major research directions of smart mapping are identified to better support smart city initiatives.     

Form-Based Codes for Zoning Reform to Promote Sustainable Development: Insights From Cities in Southern California

Problem, research strategy, and findings: Advocates of form-based codes contend that these zoning regulations go beyond conventional zoning regulations in promoting sustainable development. We examine the extent to which form-based codes adopted by California cities differ from conventional zoning regulations in integrating 41 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design for Neighborhood Development sustainability criteria (measured by the total number of criteria and the strength of each criterion included in regulations) using a multiple-case study of 26 cities in Southern California. We examine whether and how form-based codes adopted for specific development areas differ from the conventional zoning regulations they replaced and from the current conventional zoning regulations of matched cities. We find considerable variation among cities: Not all form-based codes in our study include more sustainability criteria to a stronger degree than conventional zoning regulations, but a) most form-based codes include more sustainability criteria than the conventional zoning regulations they replaced and those of matched cities, and b) the strongest form-based codes include more sustainability criteria to a stronger degree than the conventional zoning regulations they replaced and those of matched cities. We lack sufficient information to generalize; California, moreover, has many state laws requiring sustainable development. Our findings provide valuable insight for cities considering zoning reform to increase the sustainability of development.

Takeaway for practice: Our findings suggest that form-based and conventional zoning regulations can each help cities integrate sustainability criteria into their development regulations. Our research offers positive examples of best practice in zoning reform and highlights missed opportunities for creating more sustainable communities. Cities considering zoning reform can consider these opportunities when reforming their codes to be more supportive of sustainable development.     

A next step for sustainable urban design in the Netherlands

The Dutch Working Group on Sustainable Urban Development has recently delivered its publication Sustainable Urban Design, The Next Step (Meijer & Dubbeling, 2010). The book (to be referred to here as The Next Step) includes six examples of sustainable urban design and three major essays. The Working Group is a broad group of experts from the Dutch professional societies for urban designers and planners (BNSP) and landscape architects (NVTL). (The working group consists of urban designers, urban planers and landscape architects from the Netherlands.) It seeks to take the thinking and practice of sustainable urban design a step further: from sustainable urban design to sustainable spatial development. This paper explains this next stage which has been developed through a review of the literature, the inputs of the Working Group and the lessons learned from the case studies described in the book. Although the case study projects are sometimes more than 12 years old and are rooted in a specific Dutch societal and spatial context, they provide interesting, even up to date, insights for the planning of sustainable and durable cities. They are also compared to some projects in other European countries.This paper looks at why a renewed approach to sustainable urban design is both necessary and rewarding. It then turns to the renewed approach and putting it into practice. Based upon the case studies, new possibilities for the design of sustainable and durable cities are highlighted.     

Towards Post-Anthropocentric Cities: Reconceptualizing Smart Cities to Evade Urban Ecocide

ABSTRACT

This short piece acts as a coda to this journal’s special issue on “Smart Cities and Innovative Technologies.” First, it provides a retrospective view of the origins of the smart city concept. The paper, secondly, presents the most recent perspectives on the new interpretations of the smart city notion. It then provides a commentary on the potential directions for a better reconceptualization of smart cities to evade a most likely urban ecocide. Lastly, the short communication concludes by asking two critical questions: (a) Will urban scholars, planners, designers, and activists be able to convince urban policymakers and the general public of the need for a post-anthropocentric urban turnaround? (b) How do the public, private, and academic sectors along with communities pave the way for post-anthropocentric cities and more-than-human futures?     

Rapidly Growing African Cities Need to Adopt Smart Growth Policies to Solve Urban Development Concerns

This study reviews the smart growth concept- and identity-specific principles that could be adopted by rapidly growing African cities. Given the macroeconomic reform changes over the last two decades and given the persistently high natural population growth and continuous influx of rural residents to urban areas, the application of these principles may ensure sustainable urban development. The main assertion of this paper is that due to the rapid spatial expansion of major African cities in recent years, a more informed and thoughtful approach to urban development is needed to achieve efficiency and long-term sustainability. The current urban development pattern, which is dominated by unlimited outward extension, low-density residential developments, and haphazard patterns, is unacceptable. This pattern is destroying prime agricultural and environmentally sensitive lands, while increasing air pollution and traffic congestion. This paper suggests that these problems can be addressed by the adoption of smart growth principles. Smart growth principles promote compact urban development by concentrating growth in existing urban areas. The principles also encourage creating a strong municipal government with the authority to implement land-use legislation and regulations, developing a comprehensive physical plan to guide the location and timing of development, committing strongly to manage urban areas, and providing a wide range of housing choices that are affordable to residents of various incomes, ages, and lifestyles. The central idea of smart growth is that structured and strategic planning supports economic growth, addresses community needs, and protects the environment.     

Forces shaping urban morphology in Southern Africa Today: unequal interplay among people,practice and policy

ABSTRACT

This article explores public participation and its impact on urban structures in Southern Africa. Often, public participation stands in opposition to existing legislation and prevailing urban policies. Using textual analysis and case studies of Harare, Zimbabwe, Johannesburg, South Africa and Luanda, Angola, this study concludes that the urban fabric and structure of Southern African cities are in a state of instability. The rise of public participation–“right to the city”–has given way to “cities of rebels” in which citizens react or rebel against urban policies and legislation. These forces threaten sustainable urban morphology and service delivery, complicating the roles of urban planners and managers.     

江苏省十三城市循环经济发展状况的比较

江苏省正在进入工业化中期阶段,资源消耗和环境污染问题相对突出.发展循环经济有利于缓解经济增长对资源供给的压力,也是在发展中解决环境问题的一个治本之策.应用循环经济理念,参照城市社会经济发展情况、遵循3R原则和从资源环境安全的角度出发,构建了一套包括1个目标层、5个控制层和35个指标层的城市循环经济发展状况评价指标体系.采用1986～2003年18年的统计数据,对江苏省13个地级市进行了比较.结论认为:①18年来,各地级市循环经济都得到不同程度的发展,存在较为明显的差距,但与城市社会经济发展水平不完全对应;②历年来,城市循环经济发展中,镇江优势最为明显;常州、徐州、无锡、连云港和扬州5市发展态势较好:苏州、南京、南通、淮安4市次之:盐城、泰州和宿迁3市的发展较为滞后.     

严寒地区的收缩城市研究——以俄罗斯克拉斯诺亚尔斯克地区的三个极地城市为例

城市收缩是发达国家和发展中国家普遍存在的一种国际化现象。以往研究表明,超过一半的俄罗斯城市经历了不同程度的收缩,这种情况在其气候条件恶劣的北方地区更为严重。本研究的目的是通过社会经济发展动态分析俄罗斯北部城市的收缩过程,首先对俄罗斯收缩城市研究现状进行了梳理和总结;在此基础上,选取过去30年中人口总数下降较为明显的三个北方城市--诺里尔斯克、杜丁卡和伊加尔卡作为案例城市,对其反映人均工业产出的经济指数(EI)和反映社会福利水平的社会指数(SI)进行计算,结果表明该地区北部城市社会经济发展呈现出不均衡增长的现象。本研究证实了城市的经济福祉与人口生活水平之间的直接关系,并揭示出俄罗斯当前政策对收缩城市支持性的不足。     

Water resources carrying capacity evaluation of a dense city group: a comprehensive water resources carrying capacity evaluation model of Wuhan urban agglomeration

ABSTRACT

In this paper, the current situation and the carrying capacity of water resources in Wuhan urban agglomeration are analyzed. A comprehensive evaluation model is established to quantify the distribution of water resources and carrying capacity of cities in Wuhan urban agglomeration. The entropy method and synergistic theoretical model are applied to calculate parameters, and a series of indicators are also used to characterize the water resources carrying capacity in Wuhan urban agglomeration. The results show that water resources are in severe shortage and overloaded in Wuhan. It also tends to be overloaded in Ezhou.The larger protential of WRCC should be recognized in other cities of Wuhan urban agglomeration, such as Xiaogan, Huanggang, Qianjiang and Tianmen. Therefore, the rational planning and utilization of water resources, adjustment of industrial structure and the implementation of strict water-saving regulations are important for the protection of water resources and sustainable economic development of the urban agglomeration.     

Measuring and comparing local sustainable development through common indicators: Constraints and achievements in practice

Many efforts have been made to standardize indicators that aim to assess, monitor and compare sustainable development at different territorial levels. Arguments in favor and against the need to design common indicators are many and highly contested, which is why this article intends to contribute to the study on the outcomes for cities that put common local indicators to practice. This article aims to discuss the constraints and achievements of standardizing these indicators. It first explores and analyzes the efforts of European institutions and research projects supported by them towards the harmonization of local sustainable development indicators. In a second stage, it analyzes a Portuguese initiative that uses common indicators to benchmark sustainable development across cities and municipalities – ECOXXI. Evidence is gathered from two case study municipalities, Oeiras and Cascais, that have applied this indicator set, through a review and analysis of documents and semi-structured interviews with relevant public officers. The lessons learned point to major benefits on the sharing of guidelines and the delivery of a top-down but flexible indicator approach in the absence of national or European official guidelines. The main constraints are linked to issues of communication and to limited political support and use of such indicators.     

Sustainable development and urban stormwater practice

The traditional use of piped systems for stormwater management is increasingly criticized as being ‘unsustainable’. These systems are part of the water domain where much research has focused on sustainable development indicators to support decision-makers in selecting systems that are more sustainable. However, the interest in sustainable development indicators is low. This paper identifies conditions to engage the practitioners to inform their actions in regard to sustainable stormwater management. Empirical evidence has been obtained from interviews with water professionals from Swedish municipalities. The environmental-technical discourse of sustainable stormwater development is a strong barrier in the change process, to the neglect of the social aspects. In the interviews, reframing the discourse was possible in visions of future sustainable stormwater systems embracing green infrastructure. In action, primary conditions can support sustainable pathways in realizing this vision. The paper suggests further incentives for increased implementation of non-structural measures by developing the identified conditions.     

Smart City implementation and discourses: An integrated conceptual model. The case of Vienna

In recent years many initiatives have been developed under the Smart City label in a bid to provide a response to challenges facing cities today. The concept has evolved from a sector-based approach to a more comprehensive view that places governance and stakeholders' involvement at the core of strategies. However, Smart City implementation requires lowering the scale from the strategy to the project level. Therefore, the ability of Smart City initiatives to provide an integrated and systematic answer to urban challenges is constantly being called into question. Stakeholder involvement in both the projects and the city strategy is key to developing a governance framework that allows an integrated and comprehensive understanding. This can only be done if Smart City strategies take the stakeholders' opinion into account and seek a compromise between their views and the implementation of the strategy.Multiple attempts have been made to analyse Smart Cities, but tools are needed to understand their complexity and reflect the stakeholders' role in developing Smart City initiatives and their capacity to face urban challenges. This paper pursues two objectives: (A) to develop a conceptual model capable of displaying an overview of (a) the stakeholders taking part in the initiative in relation to (b) the projects developed and (c) the challenges they face; and (B) to use this model to synthesise the opinion of different stakeholders involved in Smart City initiatives and compare their attitudes to the key projects implemented in a corresponding SC strategy. The methodology combines project analysis with surveys and interviews with different groups of key stakeholders (governments, private companies, universities and research centres, and civil society) through text analysis. The conceptual model is developed through discussions with different European stakeholders and is applied to the case of the Vienna Smart City strategy.     

Carsharing and Car Ownership at the Building Scale

Problem, research strategy, and findings: A number of studies across the world have established the potential of carsharing to reduce vehicle ownership and parking demand at the citywide or neighborhood scale; however, few North American cities have formally adopted reduced minimum parking requirements for developments with carsharing services onsite (i.e., dedicated carshare vehicles). This reflects the lack of evidence regarding the impacts of carsharing on individual developments, as well as the implementation and enforcement challenges associated with adopting more flexible parking requirements.

This article investigates the case for developing and implementing a reduction in the parking requirements for residential buildings that provide dedicated carshare vehicles. We use surveys of residents of buildings with and without dedicated carshare vehicles in Toronto, Canada, to develop a regression model of vehicle ownership. This analysis suggests that the presence of dedicated carshare vehicles is associated with reduced vehicle ownership and parking demand at the building level. This is the first study, to the authors’ knowledge, that quantifies this relationship at the scale of individual developments.

Takeaway for practice: This article provides recommendations for developing a parking reduction ratio for carsharing that is compatible with existing parking requirements. It also considers approaches to promote the long-term financial viability of dedicated carshare vehicles. Overall, this study provides a starting point for those considering if and how to relax parking requirements for developments with access to carsharing services and illustrates some of the challenges with adopting flexible parking requirements.

Research support: The City of Toronto.     

Managing change: Seattle’s 21st century urban renaissance

ABSTRACT

Evolution of the urban planning and historic preservation disciplines has resulted in an “uneasy alliance” in practice, one further complicated by the back-to-the-city movement and increased development pressure in older urban neighbourhoods. In Seattle, as in other U.S. cities, the pace, intensity and scale of redevelopment has caused dramatic spatial and social transformations. Although research has shown that older built fabric provides economic and social benefit for cities, neither regulations created by planners for guiding redevelopment nor strategies created by preservationists for retaining urban heritage have been successful in reconciling these different, yet interconnected, sets of values. We engage three Seattle neighbourhood case studies to clarify and evaluate policies, programs and strategies used by planners and preservationists for reimagining neighbourhood transformations. This work suggests a need for more creative, integrative collaboration between the two fields to simultaneously engage – and reconcile – social and economic tensions caused by urban redevelopment.     

State and Municipal Climate Change Plans: The First Generation

Problem: Global warming has emerged as one of the new century's top planning challenges. But it is far from clear how state and local governments in the United States can best address climate change through planning.

Purpose: As of 2008, 29 states had prepared some sort of climate change plan, and more than 170 local governments had joined the Cities for Climate Protection (CCP) campaign that requires that a plan be developed. This article analyzes this first generation of climate change plans and seeks to assess the goals being set, the measures included or left out, issues surrounding implementation, and the basic strengths and weaknesses of state and local climate change planning to date.

Methods: I conducted this research by analyzing planning documents as well as interviewing state and local officials by telephone. I analyzed the plans of three types of governments: all states with planning documents on climate change; cities with populations of over 500,000 that are members of the CCP campaign; and selected smaller cities that are CCP members.

Results and conclusions: Most plans set emissions-reduction goals, establish emission inventories, green public sector operations, and recommend a range of other measures. Many recent plans have been developed through extensive stakeholder processes and present very detailed lists of recommendations with quantified emissions benefits. But emissions-reduction goals vary widely, many proposed actions are voluntary, few resources have been allocated, and implementation of most measures has not yet taken place. Most plans do not address adaptation to a changing climate. Officials see rapidly growing public awareness of the issue and general support for climate change planning, but reluctance to change personal behavior.

Takeaway for practice: Future climate change planning should (a) set goals that can adequately address the problem; (b) establish long-term planning frameworks in which progress toward these goals can be monitored on a regular basis and actions revised as needed; (c) include the full range of measures needed to reduce and adapt to climate change; (d) ensure implementation of recommended actions through commitment of resources, revised regulation, incentives for reducing emissions, and other means; and (e) develop strategies to deepen public awareness of the need for fundamental changes in behavior, for example regarding motor vehicle use.

Research support: This research was supported by the University of California, Davis Department of Environmental Design.     

Understanding Indonesia’s gated communities and their relationship with inequality

Abstract

Income inequality continues to increase worldwide and is highly visible in cities. This rising income inequality, along with the growing upper-middle class, has accelerated the development of gated communities (GC) as a desired housing for the ‘successful’ groups and a manifestation of how the city reproduces inequality. We analyze GC development in Jakarta and Yogyakarta, Indonesia, and offer a typology for this housing option in that country where income inequality has been growing and is now a serious government concern. Although the early 2000s saw isolated GC in only a few cities, now they are developing vigorously. This article contributes twofold. First, it provides evidence on the emergence and features of GC. Second, it shows a relationship between income inequality, social differences and GC development for upper-middle class residents in Indonesia. We argue that there is a mutually reinforcing relationship between inequality and GC: increasing income inequality leads to higher number of GC and this material artefact entrenches ‘emplaced inequality’.