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1.
The building sector consumes large quantities of resources and generates high levels of construction and demolition (C&D) waste. From an ‘urban mining’ perspective, the building stock can be seen as a repository of natural resources. In order to manage this repository, evidence is needed on its quantity and dynamics. Although data exist for domestic buildings, little evidence exists for non-domestic buildings. A new method is presented to quantify the material stock of non-domestic buildings – based on the German building stock. The quantification process involves three steps: (1) material composition indicators (MCIs) are calculated with respect to various building types; (2) the country's total floor space is estimated and disaggregated; and (3) the total material stock is calculated. The main results are MCIs and the floor space for both domestic and non-domestic stocks, as well as the material mass in total. In Germany the total material mass of non-domestic buildings is approximately 6.8 billion tonnes, accounting for 44% of the entire building stock. The method can be adapted and validated for use in other countries. These results will assist both policy-makers and the construction industry to understand the potential for moving toward a more circular economy.  相似文献   

2.
Unlike the residential building stock, most countries have poor information on their non-domestic stock. This necessitates the use of other data sources. In the mid-1980s the (then) New Zealand Department of Valuation digitized its valuation records. This permitted the first analysis of an entire country's non-domestic buildings. A very long-tail probability density function was identified, with the largest 5% of buildings containing more than 40% of the floor space. This knowledge informed the development of research for understanding non-domestic buildings as well as underpinning the 1996 revision of the NZ Building Code Clause H1 Energy Efficiency. More recently an analysis of valuation data has provided the Building Energy End-use Study (BEES) with a national sampling frame to examine energy and water end-uses in non-domestic buildings. The development of processes for collecting and analyzing data is described. Considerable changes in understanding of valuation data have occurred for documenting the non-domestic building stock. New online and geographic information sources can validate and improve building data. The use of such a database supports improved understanding of the changing nature of the building stock and potential intervention points, as well as harnessing regulatory and market forces.  相似文献   

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4.
ABSTRACT

This paper examines the performance of environmental strategies in seven recently constructed or refurbished university buildings in the UK. These buildings contain a range of administrative spaces, classrooms, libraries and studios, reflecting their often complex, multi-use, heterogeneous nature. The key features of each environmental strategy are described (including passive, mixed-mode or active systems), in the context of the occupants and spaces they serve and the level of interaction that they afford. Energy performance and occupant thermal comfort (assessed by user surveys) are analysed and compared with studies of other non-domestic buildings, which have typically focused on more predictable single administrative uses (e.g. government offices), and unusually effective operation scenarios (e.g. continuous monitoring by expert building managers). The paper concludes by examining two of the case studies that reflect an increasingly common model of ‘flexible’ environmental design in more detail, identifying key features of the strategies for each building that have had a significant impact on their performance. The design assumptions leading to these features will be explored, and key lessons identified, contributing towards the development of a more robust evidential basis for choosing appropriate environmental strategies for university and other non-domestic buildings in the UK.  相似文献   

5.
Policy for reducing carbon emissions from non-domestic buildings in the UK relies at present on survey and modelling work carried out in the 1990s. The UK government's Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) is engaged in a programme of new research to update this evidence base. The work has two main components. The first is a database – the National Energy Efficiency Data framework (NEED) – in which floor area and activity data for non-domestic premises are being linked to electricity and gas consumption at the individual property level. The second is a research project of sample surveys designed to elicit information about buildings and energy use, but also opportunities for abatement and the behavioural and organizational factors affecting efficiency improvements. A pilot survey of the food and mixed retail sector has been carried out in advance of further surveys of the entire range of building types. The research programme is described along with some of the methodological problems it raises.  相似文献   

6.
Urban-scale energy modelling provides an ideal tool for studying non-domestic energy consumption and emissions reduction at the community level. In principle, an approach based on the characteristics of individual commercial premises and buildings is attractive, but it poses a number of challenges, the most immediate of which is deciding precisely what to model. For a range of reasons connected with their self-contained nature, individual non-domestic buildings would ideally be selected. However, the main information sources available – digital mapping and business taxation data – are not based on ‘buildings’ and do not use the concept, thus making an automated approach problematic. At the same time, manual identification of the distinct buildings in a city is not a practical proposition because of the numbers involved. The digital mapping and business taxation data are brought together in the Local Land and Property Gazetteer (LLPG). An analysis of the relationships between the relevant elements, namely building polygons and premises attracting business taxation, allowed a unit to be defined that matches the definition of a ‘building’ in most circumstances and can be applied without the need for human intervention. This novel approach provides a firmer basis for modelling non-domestic building energy at the urban scale.  相似文献   

7.
The geometrical forms of buildings have important effects on their use of energy. These relationships are explored at the scale of the entire non-domestic building stock of London. A three-dimensional digital model of the city is used to make a series of geometrical measures: building volume, exposed surface area (walls plus roof) and plan depth. These are compared with figures for the consumption of gas and electricity published by the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC). The comparisons are made at different levels of spatial aggregation, from boroughs to census districts. Strong correlations are demonstrated between exposed surface area and both gas and electricity use. The analysis also provides some evidence of a sharp increase in electricity use in districts with buildings whose depth in plan exceeds 14 m (in which air-conditioning and permanent artificial lighting are typically required). A multiple regression model is used to measure the contribution of these effects to total energy use, as compared with floor area, activities and number of employees.  相似文献   

8.
Vacant housing has been associated with a variety of interests from economic implications and consequences for the urban structure to the possibility of providing housing for the homeless. In addition to these social and financial aspects, unused buildings have resources embedded in them. They take land from other activities and contain refined natural resources in the form of building components and materials. Therefore, empty buildings can be regarded as reserves for housing and repositories for urban mining, i.e. material extraction. In doing so, these buildings contribute to the resilience of cities. This geographical and statistical study on residential vacancies is situated in Finland, where empty homes may also keep using energy and producing emissions. The research material consists of a vast dataset of all residential buildings with vacancies in Finland in mid-2014, a total of 275 486 buildings with 1 100 267 occupied and 378 802 unoccupied dwellings (52% of the Finnish housing stock). The paper shows several characteristics that increase the understanding of vacancies and their role in the dynamics of the building stock. Public policy should address the issue of vacancy, not only because of social and economic implications but also because of its environmental impacts and opportunities.  相似文献   

9.
In 2002, the European Union Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) was ratified. This paper uses the lens of one policy measure triggered by the EPBD – Display Energy Certificates (DECs) for non-domestic buildings – to describe the difficulties experienced in capitalizing on a policy intention to use transparency about actual energy performance to drive better energy management and focus energy efficiency investment on things that really work in practice. It reviews the history and precedents of UK Building Regulations and European building energy efficiency policies to identify what helped and hindered progress towards buildings that use less energy in operation; and compares and contrasts building energy certificates based on asset and operational ratings. It also looks at the development paths of operational rating schemes in the US and Australia. It identifies a tendency of regulators to focus on one part of the problem, the so-called ‘regulated loads'; an unhelpful split of government ownership of the topic between various ministries and agencies; a neglect of follow-through, enforcement and feedback; and a political rhetoric that favours an abdication of central government responsibilities to market forces. Based on this evidence, it identifies a number of lessons for improvements to future policy outcomes.  相似文献   

10.
ABSTRACT

Since the 1970s, intense discussions have occurred within the research and practitioner communities on how to assess and influence the environmental performance of buildings. Many different methods, criteria and tools were developed to raise awareness, enable goal formulation, support design and decision-making processes, and evaluate a building’s environmental performance. This development can be retraced through the example of the works of Raymond J. Cole, who made an important contribution to this scientific debate. The integration of environmental performance into a sustainability assessment, the ongoing development of life cycle assessment (LCA) methods, and clients’, financiers’ and assessors’ different demands for environmental performance assessment, raise additional questions and highlight the conflicting goals. Six topics are examined in relation to current developments: the further development of the classic ‘three pillars’ sustainability model; the suitability of assessment criteria and indicators; the handling of technological progress; the discounting of environmental impacts; the environmental assessment of existing buildings; and the further development of legal requirements. ‘Time’ is a key factor relating to LCA, weighing current versus future emissions, ecological value and recycling potential of existing buildings or ‘options’ for different ways to use the building in future. Recommended actions are provided for key stakeholders.  相似文献   

11.
An explorative statistical analysis of consistent non-domestic building performance studies is conducted non-domestic buildings (n?=?47) to validate the universal positions of comfort widely cited in industry guidance and standards. The Building Use Studies (BUS) methodology for evaluating occupant satisfaction employed by these studies was tested for reliability and the factor structure explored. The reliability of this method was found to be ‘excellent’ and eight latent variables that characterize a hierarchical factor structure induced. Increased visual display unit use and open-plan arrangements were found to be associated with negative occupant perceptions. This suggests that privacy and personal communication may be defining issues for occupant satisfaction, with implications for space planning. Significantly different perceptions towards air quality and conditions in winter were observed between gender and those familiar with their environments were found to have a tendency to hold more negative perceptions more broadly. It has also been found that perceptions towards seasonal conditions may be improved by providing local control to mechanical services. Such insights highlight the limitations of reliance on positivist theory. Hence, it is recommended that high-performance buildings be provided control and management systems that learn from those occupying the building over time, cautiously adapting service provision accordingly.  相似文献   

12.
ABSTRACT

Residential building energy performance indicators are compared with a different approach for the normalization of the characteristic yearly primary energy use. The purpose is to analyse which approach results in a fair assessment of more compact, energy-efficient building geometries, and of smaller building size. A normalization by floor area is shown to result in a poorer energy performance rating for smaller buildings. The notional building approach, as recently introduced in various countries, does not lead to a fair assessment of efficient geometries. Furthermore, the choice of reference characteristics to calculate the energy performance rating has a different impact on buildings with different characteristics. An average building approach is introduced as an improvement of the notional building approach. Form-efficient buildings are found to achieve a lower energy performance rating, but the choice of the reference characteristics is still present to a limited extent. As a second alternative, it is proposed to normalize the energy use by the sphere-area approach: the area of a sphere with the same volume as the rated building. This method leads to a fair assessment of form-efficient buildings and creates an incentive for more efficient building geometries and typologies.  相似文献   

13.
ABSTRACT

The green and the subsequent sustainable building movements have been framed by changing societal contexts. Their main focus has been on the design of new buildings. However, these movements have neglected the life span of existing buildings and the long-term management of building stocks. The reasons why are considered: the changing interpretations of sustainability, the evolution of different forms of tacit knowledge, lack of a metabolic framework covering the built environment and lack of a consistent multi-scale building information modelling (BIM). The transition toward a ‘risk society’, with an increasing diversity and frequency of threats, challenges the current optimistic definition of sustainability. Resilience addresses fast- and slow-moving threats that can lead to unknown consequences and new risks. Alternative planning approaches (e.g. scenario planning, adaptive change and resilience heuristics) are discussed. The differences between anticipation- and resilience-based strategies are considered. Possible heuristics can be found in social–ecological systems, in resilience engineering and in the historic evolution of the built environment. Resilient solutions generally lead to a higher level of complexity and carry additional environmental costs. In the creation of resilience capacity, new knowledge will be co-produced through transdisciplinary research, scenario planning and design experiments under conditions of uncertainty.  相似文献   

14.
For investigating the uncertainty and reliability of building disturbance induced by tunnel excavating, the finite element (FE) method and copula technique are nicely combined in this paper. Six existing buildings located just beside the tunnel axis in Wuhan Yangtze River Metro Tunnel were taken as case study. In this research, the tunnel–building interaction was first precisely described by deterministic and stochastic FE method. The probability and uncertainty of surrounding circumstance were considered as input parameters and imported into FE model, while 180 simulated data were generated by the FE method. Then, in order to precisely appraise the potential risk of pre-existing building, the multi distributions of Smax and Imax were constructed by different copula functions, and the best-fit copula function was identified by AIC and BIC criterions. Finally, the safety risk levels of the six concerned buildings were evaluated by considering both the importance of the examined buildings and the limited value of building reliability index β. The conclusions of this research can help appraising the potential risk of these buildings during tunnel excavating and improving the security of the metro construction.  相似文献   

15.
Model-predictive control (MPC) has recently excited much interest as a new control paradigm for non-domestic buildings. Since it is based on the notion of optimization, MPC is, in principle, well placed to deliver significant energy savings and reductions in CO2 emissions compared with existing rule-based control systems. The prospects for buildings MPC are critically reviewed, in particular, the central role of the predictive mathematical model that lies at its heart. The emphasis is on practical implementation rather than control-theoretic aspects, and covers the role of occupants as well as the form of the predictive model. The most appropriate structure for such a model is still an open question, which is considered alongside the development of the initial model, and the process of updating the model during the building's operational life. The importance of sensor placement is highlighted alongside the possibility of updating the model with occupants’ comfort perception. It is concluded that there is an urgent need for research on the automated creation and updating of predictive models if MPC is to become an economically viable control method for non-domestic buildings. More evidence through operating full-scale buildings with MPC is required to demonstrate the viability of this method.  相似文献   

16.
We conducted a re-analysis of data supplied by the New Buildings Institute and the US Green Buildings Council on measured energy use data from 100 LEED-certified commercial and institutional buildings. These data were compared to the energy use of the general US commercial building stock. We also examined energy use by LEED certification level, and by energy-related credits achieved in the certification process. On average, LEED buildings used 18-39% less energy per floor area than their conventional counterparts. However, 28-35% of LEED buildings used more energy than their conventional counterparts. Further, the measured energy performance of LEED buildings had little correlation with certification level of the building, or the number of energy credits achieved by the building at design time. Therefore, at a societal level, green buildings can contribute substantial energy savings, but further work needs to be done to define green building rating schemes to ensure more consistent success at the individual building level. Note, these findings should be considered as preliminary, and the analyses should be repeated when longer data histories from a larger sample of green buildings are available.  相似文献   

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18.
A prerequisite of the efficient recycling of demolition waste and its evaluation in terms of the material specific recycling rates is information on the composition of the building material stock (as the source of future demolition waste). A practical method is presented that characterizes the material composition of buildings prior to their demolition. The characterization method is based on the analysis of available construction documents and different approaches of on-site investigation. The method is tested in different buildings and the results from four case studies indicate that the documents are useful to quantify bulk materials (e.g. bricks, concrete, sand/gravel, iron/steel and timber). However, on-site investigations are necessary to locate and determine the trace materials such as metals (e.g. copper and aluminium), or different types of plastics. The overall material intensity of the investigated buildings ranges from 270 to 470?kg/m³ gross volume. With ongoing surveys about the composition of different buildings, the collected data will be used to establish a building-specific database about the amount of materials contained in Vienna's building stock.  相似文献   

19.
Newsham et al. have recently published a re-analysis of energy-consumption data for LEED-certified commercial buildings supplied by the New Buildings Institute (NBI) and US Green Building Council. They find that, on average, LEED buildings use 18-39% less energy per floor area than their conventional counterparts, consistent with and adding clarity to conclusions originally reached by NBI. These conclusions, however, hang on a particular definition of the mean energy intensity of a collection of buildings that is not related to the total energy used by those buildings. Furthermore, site energy considered by Newsham et al. and NBI, unlike source energy used for the EPA's building Energy Star rating, does not account for the energy consumed off-site in generating and delivering electric energy to the building, whose inclusion is crucial for understanding greenhouse gas emission associated with building operation. Here I demonstrate that both the site energy and source energy used by the set of 35 LEED office buildings and Newsham et al.’s matching CBECS office buildings are statistically equivalent. Hence Newsham et al. offer no evidence that LEED-certification has collectively lowered either site or source energy for office buildings.  相似文献   

20.
ABSTRACT

Several industry-led initiatives in various countries demonstrate a new interest in wellbeing and buildings. This paper adopts a scoping review method aiming to establish the most prevalent and insightful definitions and dimensions of wellbeing in buildings applied in the recent published literature. The paper adopts a two-step method for identifying and categorizing the conceptual approaches to wellbeing encountered in the current literature. First, an overview is presented of the term ‘wellbeing’ and its development over time. Second, the broad wellbeing categories identified are further refined and complemented via a deductive approach, drawing the final set of conceptual themes informed by the papers reviewed in this study. Nine themes were identified, two of which deductively emerged from the papers included in this study: environmental satisfaction/comfort and cognitive performance/productivity. The findings emphasize the heterogeneity of conceptual approaches to research concerning ‘wellbeing in buildings’, an ambiguity between wellbeing outcomes or determinants, and the need for greater clarity on the relative contributions of different wellbeing dimensions to overall individual or population wellbeing. Based on these findings, future work could be carried out to provide guidance on how to evaluate claims of evidence-based building design which foster individual or population wellbeing.  相似文献   

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