动态摩擦因数对蝶式制动器温度场影响的试验和模拟研究

针对蝶式制动器制动过程中温度场研究的需要,利用相似原理研制定速制动试验台,用以模拟摩托车匀速下长坡时的制动工况。制动试验台用车床的三爪卡盘控制固定在旋转轴上的制动盘做定速旋转运动,内外摩擦片通过液压力夹紧制动盘,使制动盘与摩擦片发生摩擦运动,通过热电偶、拉压力传感器、压力表、热成像仪分别测出定速制动50 s的摩擦片上固定点的温度变化、制动扭矩(经计算得出)的动态变化、制动力的均值、制动盘摩擦区域的温度场变化,实时显示并记录下来。定速制动摩擦试验机能实现不同转速、不同制动力等条件下,制动过程中的各变量的动态测量。试验还选取热成像仪测得的最大的温度为变量,研究摩擦因数随温度的变化。在试验的基础上,用ABAQUS对制动盘与摩擦片的相互作用做了一些仿真和分析。仿照实际模型1∶1建模,加载与边界条件与实际模型相同,将测得的摩擦因数随温度变化的数据输入接触条件,仿真得到制动盘与摩擦片温度场的变化。仿真与试验的结果对比表明摩擦因数动态变化的接触模型能很好的模拟制动的实际工况。     

On the Use of Calcium Fluoride as an Infrared-Transparent First Body for In Situ Temperature Measurements in Sliding Contact

This article presents an investigation of the temperature changes in dry sliding contact for braking applications. An original metrology method was developed using a special pad with a calcium fluoride ‘window’ in its centre. As calcium fluoride is transparent to infrared radiation (up to 92% in 1–5 μm spectra), it allows access to the disc surface during friction for estimating its temperature using a two-colour pyrometer. Using this set-up, the surface temperature of the disc was successfully determined during friction. In addition, the temperature in the contact area was compared to that measured immediately outside the contact area; the difference between them proved to be very minimal (<5%). The effect of introducing a calcium fluoride ‘window’ on friction was also studied, and the results show that its use does not affect the friction coefficient. Finally, the wear mechanisms of the calcium fluoride were studied through the characterisation of the worn surfaces using several techniques.     

摩擦块形状对制动盘摩擦温度及热应力分布的影响

列车制动产生的摩擦热在制动盘表面的分布与闸片结构密切相关,并影响到制动盘的耐热疲劳程度.基于实际应用的圆形、六边形、三角形3种形状摩擦块的制动闸片,利用有限元分析软件ABAQUS,模拟制动时制动盘的温度及热应力分布情况.结果显示:制动盘摩擦表面温度及热应力呈环形带状分布,沿周向变化不明显,在径向上分布的均匀程度差异较大;其变化程度与摩擦块形状和位置有关,摩擦块为圆形时,盘面的温差和热应力最小,摩擦块为三角形时,盘面的温差和热应力最大;摩擦块的位置分布影响到摩擦副接触弧长度,接触弧长度增加,对应的摩擦环带温度升高;各环带对应的接触弧长度偏差越小,制动盘温度越低,分布也越均匀.     

Thermoelastic Analysis of Grooved Friction Clutches Using Finite Element Method

High temperatures appear on friction clutch surfaces due to the heat generated between the contacting surfaces during the slipping period. In some cases the maximum temperatures will exceed the allowable working temperature; friction clutches will fail rapidly when working under these conditions for a long time. Therefore, it is necessary to study the effect of design parameters (e.g., grooves) on the thermoelastic behavior of friction clutches to avoid these kinds of failures or at least increase the lifetime of friction clutch. A finite element method will be used to investigate the effect of the circumferential groove on the thermoelastic behavior of a single-disc clutch during a sliding phase. Axisymmetric models have been developed in this analysis to simulate the dry clutch systems during the sliding period. The effect of the groove area ratio G.R (defined as the groove area divided by the nominal contact area) on thermal and elastic behaviors is investigated. The results showed that the groove size has a significant effect on the magnitude and distribution of contact pressure, temperature field and heat generated along the frictional surfaces.     

摩擦副结构与制动盘温度关系的试验与模拟研究

摩擦副结构是影响制动盘温度分布的重要因素之一。针对闸片形状为圆形、三角形和六边形三种结构的摩擦副,采用制动试验台进行了速度为50～250 km/h的制动试验,并利用ABAQUS软件数值模拟了三种摩擦副不同工况条件下制动盘温度场的变化过程。结果表明：数值模拟温度场与试验测试结果具有良好的相似性。摩擦副结构对盘面温度分布的影响程度与制动条件密切相关,其结构形式对制动盘面温度的影响程度在制动初期最为明显,且随制动初速度和制动压力的增加而增加。这缘于闸片结构的不同导致了摩擦面摩擦弧长分布的不同,随制动速度升高和压力增加,摩擦弧长的差异起到了放大能量差别的作用,从而表现制动盘温度分布对闸片结构的敏感程度增加。     

The interfacial surface temperature of a disc brake

The equations for the surface temperature rise at the interface between a friction material and a brake disc have been rederived to show how they are interrelated. By making assumptions about how the heat generated during braking enters the brake disc, the surface temperature rises for the bulk surface and for the actual contact area have been calculated. These are compared with the observed bulk surface temperature rise and the temperature rise at the actual contact area estimated from the structure of the wear debris produced during braking, using an asbestos-based friction material rubbing on a cast-iron brake disc.     

摩擦副组合对摩擦磨损性能的影响

在1：1惯性力矩制动试验台上研究了两种不同石墨形态的铸铁制动盘与两种混杂纤维增强的酚醛基制动闸片配副时的摩擦磨损性能。结果表明，对于某一配方的制动闸片，使用灰口铸铁盘的摩擦副具有较高的摩擦系数，但制动盘表面温度较高，闸片磨损量较大；对于某一种制动盘，使用B配方制动闸片时，制动盘表面的温度较高，但闸片的磨损量较小；在所有四种组合中，B配方制动闸片与灰口铸铁盘配副的瞬时摩擦系数能够完全满足有关技术要求。     

[轮轨磨耗及预测]列车紧急制动过程中踏面温度分布及磨耗预测

列车紧急制动过程中踏面温度急剧升高导致车轮踏面的摩擦磨损机理与稳态运行时有显著差异。为了准确预测列车紧急制动过程中踏面磨耗,同时考虑踏面制动过程中车轮踏面与钢轨及闸瓦接触,基于有限元软件ABAQUS建立了踏面制动过程热机械耦合有限元模型,综合考虑制动温升对车轮踏面力学性能、硬度及摩擦因数的影响,仿真得到了紧急制动过程中车轮踏面上温度分布、硬度分布以及接触应力分布,并利用轮轨动力学软件UM得到了紧急制动过程中轮轨接触斑形状以及轮轨蠕滑区相对滑移分布,在此基础上结合Archard磨耗模型对单次紧急制动结束后的踏面磨损深度进行了定量预测。结果表明：对于制动初速度为130 km/h、160 km/h两种工况,踏面最高温度分别达到了397.0 ℃和485.9 ℃,踏面最大累积磨损深度分别为5.90 μm和7.43 μm,与踏面制动实验对比发现,预测结果与实验结果磨损位置及形貌分布趋势一致。     

Advanced Friction–Wear Behavior of Organic Brake Pads Using a Newly Developed System

The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of an advanced performance system on the tribological behavior of brake pad material using a specially designed brake pad tester system following standard SAE J-661. The tribological behavior and friction and wear characteristics of the organic brake pad samples were evaluated. During braking tests, the samples, in contact with a cast iron disk, were studied at different disc speeds, temperatures, and braking cycles under a constant pressure. In order to understand the friction and wear behavior, the unworn surfaces, worn surfaces, and wear debris were characterized by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX). Furthermore, the surface characteristics and differences in the wear modes of the brake pad samples were examined. Wear debris was permitted to deform the brake pad surfaces, leading to friction layers and enabling the estimation of the friction behavior of the brake pads. The results showed that the best friction–wear behavior was obtained with lower braking cycles at low speeds and temperature. Thus, the newly developed brake pad tester system proved very effective in evaluating the performance of the brake pad samples.     

制动过程中闸片材料与制动盘温度关系试验研究

为探讨碳/陶制动盘与不同闸片材料的匹配性,对碳/陶制动盘分别与碳/陶复合闸片、铜基粉末冶金闸片和铁基粉末冶金闸片组成的摩擦副进行制动试验,研究了在制动过程中盘面各点瞬时温度、最高温度、闸片温度与制动工况的关系。结果表明：碳/陶制动盘与碳/陶复合闸片摩擦副温度及温度梯度均高于其他2种摩擦副,其温度梯度在低速制动时随压力的增加而明显增加,当制动速度较高时,温度梯度并没有随压力的增加而增加;对于碳/陶制动盘与铜基和铁基粉末冶金闸片摩擦副,随制动速度和压力的提高,盘面温度梯度变化不明显。原因在于材料导热性和起始摩擦因数决定了盘面的散热能力和制动功率,碳/陶制动盘与碳/陶复合闸片摩擦副因较高的起始摩擦因数以及较低的导热性,其制动功率高和散热能力低,导致盘面温度持续升高。     

耗材摩擦焊中的耗材过渡与成形机理研究

以 1 Cr1 8Ni9Ti为耗材在低碳钢母材表面进行了摩擦焊敷试验。观察测量了不同工艺参数匹配下耗材金属的过渡行为和真实接触面的大小 ,阐明了耗材金属的过渡机理和真实接触面的变化规律及影响因素 ;以特征流线为依据 ,建立了过渡金属形成初始焊敷层的物理模型并分析了摩擦碾压作用对焊敷层最终成形和界面连接过程的影响。研究表明 ,耗材金属是通过真实接触面过渡到母材表面的 ,真实接触面位于旋转界面的中心区域 ,其大小随耗材转速和摩擦压力的增大而减小 ;真实接触面两侧不对称的温度分布是推动耗材金属过渡的驱动力 ;摩擦碾压作用是焊敷层最终成形和界面形成可靠连接的决定因素。     

[轮轨磨耗及预测]高速列车制动摩擦块切入端特征对制动界面特性的影响

在自行研制的高速列车制动缩比试验台上，对四种不同安装方向下的三角形摩擦块进行拖曳制动试验，研究了摩擦块的切入端特征对制动界面特性的影响,并采用有限元方法分析不同摩擦切入端特征下摩擦块的接触压力分布特点，探讨了摩擦块表面接触压力分布与其表面热分布、振动噪声特性的内在关联。结果表明：在摩擦制动过程中，摩擦块的切入端存在应力集中现象，尤其是当摩擦切入端是一个角的两条边时，摩擦切入端的角附近区域应力集中更为明显，从而引起制动系统产生高强度的振动噪声并导致摩擦块表面局部高温现象。     

On the dry and wet sliding performance of potentially new frictional brake pad materials for automotive industry

In this work, dry and wet continuous sliding performances of newly developed four different non-commercial frictional brake pad materials (NF1, NF2, NF4, and NF5) were evaluated and compared with other two chosen commercial brake pad materials (CMA and CMB) using a small-scale tribo-tester of pad-on-disc type.Results showed that under dry continuous braking, friction coefficients for all non-commercial brake pad materials including the CMB were insensitive to the type of brake pad materials. In addition, all brake pad materials showed a slight increase in the friction coefficients (5–19%) with increasing pressure or speed. Meanwhile, the wear rates were substantially dependent on the type or ingredient of brake pad materials and the pressure. Conversely, under wet sliding condition, the friction coefficients were decreased by a factor of 2. Moreover, no evidence of HD water film could be evidenced as the measured friction coefficient values were in the order of dry friction. Thus, the wet results suggested that the friction behaviour was influenced by factors other than HD film, and the values of friction coefficient were in the range of dry friction, mixed and boundary lubrication friction. Qualitative assessment of the SEM morphologies of brake pad surfaces showed that tribofilms were easily formed in dry braking and hardly formed in wet braking. Besides, all brake pad rubbing surfaces showed contact plateaus “patches” and disintegrations of various sizes and locations depending on the braking condition. Furthermore, the removal of material was associated with either mechanical crushing action performed by entrapped wear debris or due to disintegration of plateaus which were accelerated by spraying the water.     

The Real Area of Contact in Polymeric Magnetic Media—II: Experimental Data and Analysis

Electrical-contact-resistance and two-beam optical-interference techniques were employed to measure the real area of contact of magnetic tapes. The former technique does not work well due to significant contributions from tunnel effect and multimolecular insulating films; the latter provides shape and size distribution of asperity-contact areas.

Experiments were conducted at a pressure range of 13.8 kPa and 1.38 MPa. Normal pressure had strong dependence on both the real area of contact and the number of contact spots, and weak dependence on the mean asperity-contact diameter. This is in agreement with the theory. In the case of the two tapes tested in the pressure range, the real area of contact varied from 0.5 to 25 percent. The mean asperity-contact diameter and number of contact spots ranged from 6 to 13 μm and 200 to 2300 per mm², respectively. The mean real pressure was in the range of 2 to 8 MPa. The real area of contact increased with an increase in the ambient temperature. Surface roughness had strong influence on the real area of contact, as expected. Tapes subjected to pressure and temperature for a period resulted in a growth of the real area of contact. When the tapes were unloaded, a significant portion of the deformation was not recovered.     

Comparison of different theoretical models for flash temperature calculation under fretting conditions

The wear and friction properties of tribological interfaces depend significantly on the contact temperature, and its determination is therefore important for each tribological application. Temperature calculation methods available in the literature use quite different physical, dynamic and geometrical assumptions. Furthermore, the assumptions necessary for temperature calculations also include various interfacial properties, which are usually unknown due to many difficulties in their exact determination. It is therefore important to know the possible differences between several frequently used models for flash temperature calculation and also the effect of these pre-assumed input parameters. In the present work the effects of the tribological interface between silicon nitride and steel under dry and boundary lubricated fretting conditions were studied. Effects of the change of thermal properties, as well as the coefficient of friction and the real contact area on the calculated flash temperature are presented. Ten different theoretical models were selected for the purposes of this investigation. The results show crucial differences between the various models and the significant importance of the tribological interface properties on the calculated temperatures. Based on these calculations, supported by experimental evidence, it is clear that their severe limitations must be considered and care in the interpretation of the results taken when such models are used.     

Simulation of wear and contact pressure distribution at the pad-to-rotor interface in a disc brake using general purpose finite element analysis software

Passenger car disc brakes are safety-critical components whose performance depends strongly on contact conditions at the pad-to-rotor interface. The interface can be classified as a conformal dry sliding contact. During braking both brake pad and rotor surfaces are worn, affecting the useful life of the brake as well as its behavior. This paper discusses how wear of the pad-to-rotor interface can be predicted using general purpose finite element analysis software. A three-dimensional finite element model of the brake pad and the rotor is developed to calculate the pressure distribution in the pad-to-rotor contact. A wear simulation procedure based on a generalized form of Archard's wear law and explicit Euler integration is used to simulate the wear of the brake pad under steady-state drag conditions.     

Friction of rubber on ice: A new machine,influence of rubber properties and sliding parameters

Friction of rubber on ice and snow is important for performance of vehicle tyres in winter. We introduce a new linear tribometer that was designed for measuring the friction of rubber on ice. We present a systematic study of rubber sliding on ice, investigating speed, load, temperature and rubber properties. The friction was linked to behaviour at the interface, particularly melt–water formation and real area of contact. Friction tends to decrease with conditions that promote melt–water formation, and tends to increase as real area of contact increases. We observe stick-slip behaviour with high real area of contact and high load.     

Coalescence and breakup of contact areas: Effects on surface temperatures

In a study of the mechanisms by which thin polymeric films can prevent or delay the onset of fretting corrosion, experimental observations were made of the apparent real area of contact and temperatures generated by friction in a dry-sliding system consisting of stationary polymer-coated steel balls loaded against a vibrating sapphire disk. Five different polymers were used in the original study at vibrating frequencies ranging from 100 to 200 Hz and amplitudes from 20 to 100 μm; but this paper focuses on only one of these—polystyrene coated steel balls in contact with sapphire. Surface temperatures generated by friction were measured using an infrared microscope system. A photomacro/video technique was developed to view the fretting contact interface and to measure the size and distribution of the real areas of contact. The experiments revealed several complex patterns and unusual phenomena. In one example of behavior, a number of small contact patches would suddenly coalesce into one larger contact patch and then break up again into a similar collection of separate patches. This coalescence and breakup occurred at a regular frequency which was much lower than the oscillating frequency. In addition, significant surface temperature spikes corresponding to the occurrence of coalesced areas were observed.A general thermal model previously developed was used to theoretically predict the temperatures corresponding to the experimental conditions [Furey MJ, Vick B, Foo SJ, Weick BL. A theoretical and experimental study of surface temperatures generated during fretting. In: Proceedings of Japan international tribology conference, Nagoya, Japan, 29 October 1990–1 November 1990, vol. II, pp. 809–14; Vick B, Furey MJ. A basic theoretical study of the temperature rise in sliding contact with multiple contacts. Tribology International 2001;34:823–29]. The thermal model consists of a sliding pair of any material combination with three-dimensional and transient conditions. The key feature is the contact area, which is modeled as a collection of rectangular patches in which each patch can have any specified size, shape, position, and time duration. In this way, each contact has a unique start and finish time and the entire collection of contacts can evolve with time in any specified manner. This provides the flexibility to model everything from hard, brittle surfaces such as ceramics to softer, deformable surfaces such as polymers.Using the changes in the apparent real area of contact as observed in the experiments, the theoretical model predicted surface temperatures in close agreement with experimental values. The results of this study show not only that the area of contact is complex and dynamically changing, but that the surface temperatures produced are extremely sensitive to the real area of contact. Although the fundamental mechanisms for the observed phenomena of breakup, coalescence and motion of contact areas are unknown, the study is important since it illustrates the connection between areas of contact and surface temperature—a key unknown which influences physical and chemical behavior in tribological processes.     

FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD-BASED SIMULATION OF TEMPERATURE FIELDS FOR APPLICATION TO ORTHOGONAL CUTTING WITH COATED TOOLS

A finite difference method was proposed to model the effect of a variety of tool coatings on the magnitude and distribution of temperatures through the tool-chip contact region and the coating/substrate boundaries. For each workpiece-tool pair tested the intensity of uniformly distributed heat flux and relevant analytically obtained values of the heat partition coefficient were assumed to change with variations of cutting speed and the corresponding friction. In this case the simulation of an orthogonal machining of AISI 1045 steel was performed using special computing algorithm with elementary balances of induced energies (MBE). It is concluded that the temperature contours obtained reflect favorable the specific contact conditions existing at the tool-chip interface and substantial differences can arise from coating effects.     

盘式制动器的结构场有限元分析

首先探讨盘式制动器在制动过程中的摩擦接触和非线性动力学问题.具体的分析方法包括:摩擦接触算法,非线性有限元方法.按照制动盘与摩擦片的实际几何尺寸,建立了具有速度可变效应的三维瞬态结构应力有限元模型,利用非线性有限元方法,较真实地模拟了制动器的制动过程.通过以上分析得出制动过程的一些结构上的性能变化.将同相同制动条件下的实心盘式制动器和通风盘式制动器对比,得出通风盘式制动器在制动过程中的接触应力,各向位移等.