Shear Strength Properties of a Residual Soil in Singapore

The shear strength and stress-strain behaviour of residual soil are known to be affected significantly not only by the initial porosity and stress history, but also by the bonds between particles. Although residual soil is commonly encountered during constructions in the tropical region, studies on its engineering properties are far from adequate. There is a lack of in-depth study to characterize the strength and deformation behaviour of intact residual soils in Singapore, especially under more representative testing conditions such as plane-strain conditions. In relation to a tunnelling construction project in Singapore, the engineering properties of an intact residual soil were characterised using laboratory tests. Large block undisturbed soil samples taken from a construction site were used. K₀ consolidated undrained triaxial compression (CK₀UC), extension (CK₀UE), direct simple shear (CK₀UDSS), and K₀ consolidated undrained plane-strain (CK₀UPS) tests were conducted. The undrained shear strength ratio c_u/σ′₁₀ and overconsolidation ratio (OCR) relationships were established. The test results indicate that the undrained shear strength (c_u) of the intact residual soil is highly anisotropic in term of c_u/σ′₁₀ ratio. It is also noted from the experimental results that the secant friction angles were highly dependent on consolidation stresses, as well as the testing methods. These anisotropic properties will affect considerably the design methods and the selection of parameters for analyses.     

Effect of initial water content on undrained shear strength of K0 consolidated clay

This study investigates the effect of initial water content on the pore pressure response and undrained shear behavior of K₀ consolidated reconstituted clay. A series of K₀ consolidated undrained triaxial compression tests were conducted on reconstituted Lianyungang clay. Results were compared to those obtained by isotropic consolidated undrained triaxial tests. The testing results showed that the K₀ consolidated undrained strength envelope of reconstituted soil content is a straight line passing through the origin regardless of the initial water content. The initial water content would affect the undrained strength of K₀ consolidated clay as decreased normalized undrained shear strength was observed with clay at higher initial water content. The slope C of normalized pore pressure and stress ratio is affected by the consolidation method, where C is found to be a soil constant for K₀ consolidated clay and the value would be higher with clay under K₀ consolidation. The pore pressure increases with increasing initial water content at a certain axial strain under given consolidation pressure, and the difference in excess pore pressure increases with the increasing consolidation pressure. Pore pressure coefficient at failure (A_f) increases as the initial water content increases, where a trendline can be well fitted between the pore coefficient at failure and the ratio of initial water content to the liquid limit of clay. The undrained strength indexes, i.e., effective cohesion and effective internal friction angle have decreasing tendency with increasing initial water content; however, changes in the total strength indexes of soil in this study are insignificant with varying initial water content.     

Ko固结三轴仪的研制与试验研究

本文报导了K0固结三轴仪加压装置的研制及试验成果。该装置用光纤维位移传感器控制双筒压力室内的水位,自动或手动对试样加压力,使试样在无侧向变形条件下发生固结,然后在保持侧压力不变或平均压力不变的情况下进行剪切试验。试验操作简便,适于配备在普通三轴仪上使用。对不同种类土样的试验表明,控制试样侧向不变形的灵敏度高,达到了K₀固结三轴剪切试验的要求。K₀固结三轴试验的有效应力强度指标与各向等压固结三轴试验的数值相同或前者比后者略大,排水剪的应力与应变关系曲线二者相差不大,但不排水剪试验相差很大。     

Mechanical properties of expanded polystyrene lightweight aggregate concrete and brick

In this study, mix proportion parameters of expanded polystyrene (EPS) lightweight aggregate concrete are analyzed by using Taguchi’s approach. The density, compressive strength and stress-strain behavior were tested. The optimal mixture of EPS lightweight aggregate concrete was selected among experiments under consideration to manufacture the lightweight hollow bricks. The results show that EPS dosage has the most significant effect on compressive strength of EPS lightweight aggregate concrete, then water and cement ratio, while the content of cement and sand ratio play a comparatively less important part. The relationship between density and compressive strength of EPS lightweight aggregate concrete is proposed as f_c = 2.43 × γ^2.997 × 10⁻⁹. The legitimacy of the use of EPS lightweight bricks made by EPS lightweight aggregate concrete is confirmed.     

Study on strength of artificially frozen soils in deep alluvium

This paper describes a series of stress-controlled uniaxial compressive tests performed on frozen loess and triaxial compressive tests performed on frozen/unfrozen loess, which experienced K₀ consolidated process before freezing, to study the stress–strain–strength behaviour of an artificially frozen soil in deep alluvium. The aim of subjecting the triaxial test samples to K₀ consolidation was to simulate the forming process of deep soils. These tests examined the influence of the initial confining pressure and the temperature of frozen soils on stress–strain–strength behaviour. An analysis of the mechanical behaviour of artificially frozen soil is performed from interpretation of results from the unconfined and triaxial compressive tests of frozen/unfrozen soils, in which the influence of both the degree of cementation arising from the interparticle bonding and the initial confining stress was investigated. For deep artificially frozen soils, it was concluded that the unconfined compressive strength is a direct measurement of the degree of cementation. Consequently, the triaxial compressive strength can be expressed as a function of only two variables: (1) the internal angle of the shearing resistance of the unfrozen soils; and (2) the unconfined compressive strength. Data from additional experiments performed later verified the validity of proposed relationship in evaluating the strength of deep artificially frozen soil.     

Effects of Curing Period and Stress Conditions on the Strength and Deformation Characteristics of Cement-mixed Soil

The effects of long-term curing on the strength and deformation characteristics of compacted cement-mixed soil were evaluated. A series of unconfined compression tests and drained triaxial compression (TC) tests were performed on moist cement-mixed sand compacted at various water contents, w_i, and cured at unconfined conditions for different periods up to more than eight years. TC tests were performed on cement-mixed gravel compacted at the optimum water content. The ageing effects on the compressive strength, q_max, from the present study were compared to those with various types of cement-mixed soils and concretes from the literature. An increase in q_max of cement-mixed soil continues for a very long period, up to several years, unlike ordinary concrete. This result indicates that the compressive strength at 28 days of cement-mixed soil, usually employed as the design strength, may largely underestimate the long-term strength. The increasing rate with time of the initial stiffness at small strains becomes continuously smaller than q_max with time. A large high-stiffness stress zone develops when monotonic loading is restarted at a certain high strain rate after some long sustained loading. This stress size is much larger than the one in the case without ageing effects. By positive interactions between the ageing effect and the inviscid yielding, q_max exhibits a larger extra gain when cured longer at more anisotropic stress states.     

Field Placing Test of Lightweight Treated Soil under Seawater in Kumamoto Port

A lightweight treated soil method has recently been developed to reuse dredged soils as artificial lightweight geomaterials, the density of which ranges from 1.0 ~ 1.2 g/cm³, for coastal construction projects. In the two types of lightweight soils, foam-treated soil (FTS) and bead-treated soil (BTS), the slurry of dredged soil is mixed with cement and air foam, or cement and EPS beads (the diameters are 1 ~ 3 mm), respectively. The lightweight treated soil method have been applied in several seaports and coastal airport projects, but only in the sites at a level shallower than –3 m to avoid density change due to large water pressure and the possibility of washout during underwater placing.In this study, full scale field placing tests of lightweight soils were carried out at sites 10 m below the sea level in Kumamoto Port with the purpose of investigating the material properties of lightweight soils placed under deep water. Especially the change of density through the process of mixing, transportation, placing and hardening was examined in detail. It was found that the lightweight soil method can be applied under sea water of –10 m, although a part of the total volume of mixed foam or mixed EPS beads is swept away during the construction process. However the wet-density of lightweight soil measured 1 year after the construction was almost the same as that of a 28-day specimen, while the 1 year strength was 40% larger than the 28-day strength.     

Effect of principal stress direction during consolidation on the shear strength properties of natural granite residual soil

In numerous real-life civil engineering practices, including multi-stage embankment construction and foundation pit excavation, the direction of the major principal stress σ₁ becomes rotated. In these cases, the granite residual soil may be subjected to inclined consolidation (IC) with σ₁ being inclined, because of the relatively high permeability as a result of the fissures formed during weathering. While the effect of the σ₁ direction during the shear on the strength of granite residual soil (inherent strength anisotropy) has been primarily established, little is known about how the soil strength is affected by the direction of σ₁ during consolidation. This paper presents the effects of IC on the shear strength properties of natural granite residual soil through undrained hollow cylinder torsional shear tests. The effect of the soil structure is also considered by testing remolded soil specimens. The results reveal that while IC changes neither the shape of stress–strain curve nor the specimen features at failure, it leads to an increased ultimate shear strength in terms of both the undrained strength and stress ratio, with the remolded soil being more affected. The presented data provide new insights into the understanding of residual soil strength behaviors.     

A unified approach to link small-strain shear modulus and liquefaction resistance of pumiceous sand

Natural pumiceous (NP) sands containing pumice particles, a type of volcanic soil, are commonly found in the central part of the North Island in New Zealand. The pumice particles are highly crushable, compressible, lightweight and angular, making engineering assessment of their properties problematic. In this paper, several series of bender element and undrained cyclic triaxial tests were performed on reconstituted and undisturbed NP sands to determine their small-strain shear modulus (G_max) and cyclic resistance ratio (CRR). Furthermore, similar tests were also conducted on normal hard-grained sands (e.g., Toyoura sand) for the purpose of comparison. The results showed that the NP sands have considerably lower G_max compared to normal sands, resulting in their higher deformability during the initial stages of the cyclic loading test. The high angularity of NP sands play an important role toward the end of the cyclic loading and contributed to their higher CRR. Next, the ratio of CRR/G_max for each sample was correlated to a level of strain denoted as cyclic yield strain (ε_ay), which was found to be significantly dependent on the percentages of pumice particles present in the natural soils. On the other hand, the ε_ay was found to be less sensitive to the consolidation stress (σ′_c) and the relative density (Dr) of the materials. For example, over different values of σ′_c and Dr, NP sands have substantially higher values of cyclic yield strain due to their lower G_max and higher CRR when compared with those of ordinary sands.     

Strength and deformation properties of frozen sand under a true triaxial stress condition

In recent years, the mechanical properties of frozen soils under complex stress states have attracted significant attention; however, limited by the test apparatus, true triaxial tests on frozen soils have rarely been conducted. To study the strength and deformation properties of frozen sand under a true triaxial stress state, a novel frozen soil testing system, i.e., a true triaxial apparatus, was developed. The apparatus is mainly composed of a temperature control system, a servo host system, a hydraulic servo loading system, and a digital control system. Several true triaxial tests were conducted at a constant minor principal stress (σ₃) and constant intermediate principal stress ratio (b) to study the effect of intermediate principal stress (σ₂) on the mechanical properties of frozen sand. The test results showed that the stress–strain curve can be mainly divided into three stages, with evidence of strain hardening characteristics. The strength, elastic modulus, and friction angle increased with the increase in b from 0 to 0.6, but decreased when increasing b from 0.6 to 1, whereas the cohesion varied little with the variation in b. The deformation in the direction of σ₂ changed from dilative to compressive and that in the direction of σ₃ remained dilative throughout.     

Undrained Cyclic Shear Behaviour of Reconstituted Scoria Deposit

Since scoria can be utilized in several industrial applications and the cyclic shear characteristics of scoria have not been studied sufficiently, it is important to measure the cyclic triaxial shearing response of scoria deposit. A series of laboratory tests was carried out in order to obtain the cyclic shear characteristics of scoria. Undrained cyclic triaxial tests were conducted on reconstituted scoria deposits obtained from Mt. Fuji, Yamanashi Prefecture. To evaluate the degree of particle breakage due to shearing, the grain size distribution has been evaluated before and after cyclic triaxial tests by traditional techniques. The differences in liquefaction characteristics between Scoria and other materials from previous studies were demonstrated. From the results of undrained cyclic triaxial test on the scoria, it was understood that the effect of relative density D_r on the cyclic shear strength of scoria material is small, in the range 43.8% to 97.7% of D_r. Comparison results between monotonic and cyclic triaxial tests on grain breakage due to shearing shows that the degree of grain breakage for cyclic triaxial test is relatively higher than from monotonic tests for a similar dry density.     

An undrained expansion solution of cylindrical cavity in SANICLAY for K0-consolidated clays

This paper proposes a rigorous undrained solution for cylindrical cavity expansion problems in K₀-consolidated clays, adopting a simple non-associated and anisotropic model, SANICLAY. The cavity expansion theory is well extended to consider non-associativity, K₀-consolidation and stress-induced anisotropy with combined rotational and distortional hardening of yield surface and plastic potential in the multiaxial stress space. The developed solution can be recovered for validation against the modified Cam-clay (MCC) solution by simply setting model constants, avoiding non-associativity and anisotropy. The source code is provided to facilitate the use for extensions. After investigating the effects of overconsolidation ratio on the cavity pressure curves, stress distributions, evolutions of anisotropic parameters and stress paths, the variations with three-dimensional (3D) evolutions of yield surface and plastic potential during undrained cavity expansion are shown for various K₀-consolidated clays. A parametric study on the model constants is presented to depict the influences on the stress distributions and paths, critical state surfaces and Lode's angles at failure. The proposed solution also provides a general framework for formulating equations for undrained expansion of cylindrical cavities under an initial cross anisotropic condition using sophisticated anisotropic soil models. It serves as a precise benchmark for extensions of analytical solutions, numerical simulations of cavity expansion, and back-calculations of geotechnical problems.     

Compression and extension yield of an anisotropically consolidated soil

A series of undrained and drained triaxial tests were conducted to investigate the yielding behavior of anisotropically consolidated reconstituted Shanghai clay under triaxial compression and extension loading conditions. The soil was consolidated with K of 0.5, where K is the ratio of cell pressure to axial pressure. The tests included drained constant η (=q/p′) loading tests and undrained and drained triaxial compression and extension shear tests on anisotropically consolidated specimens. It was found that the anisotropically consolidated Shanghai clay obeys Rendulic’s principle under compression loading, but not under extension loading, and that the yield surface inclined inside the state boundary surface under extension loading. Moreover, the pre-yield behavior and the post-yield behavior were found to be very different under these two loading conditions (compression and extension loading). The test results confirm the validity of the sloping elastic wall theory, and the influence of anisotropic parameter β on the shape of the yield curve in the p′?v plane was also studied in the paper. Constitutive modeling methods for anisotropic consolidated soils were also discussed based on the test results.     

Risk of shear failure and extensional failure around over-stressed excavations in brittle rock

The authors investigate the failure modes surrounding over-stressed tunnels in rock.Three lines of investigation are employed:failure in over-stressed three-dimensional(3D) models of tunnels bored under 3D stress,failure modes in two-dimensional(2D) numerical simulations of 1000 m and 2000 m deep tunnels using FRACOD,both in intact rock and in rock masses with one or two joint sets,and finally,observations in TBM(tunnel boring machine) tunnels in hard and medium hard massive rocks.The reason for 'stress-induced' failure to initiate,when the assumed maximum tangential stress is approximately(0.4-0.5)σ_c(UCS,uniaxial compressive strength) in massive rock,is now known to be due to exceedance of a critical extensional strain which is generated by a Poisson's ratio effect.However,because similar 'stress/strength' failure limits are found in mining,nuclear waste research excavations,and deep road tunnels in Norway,one is easily misled into thinking of compressive stress induced failure.Because of this,the empirical SRF(stress reduction factor in the Q-system) is set to accelerate as the estimated ratio σ_(θmax)/σ_c 0.4.In mining,similar 'stress/strength' ratios are used to suggest depth of break-out.The reality behind the fracture initiation stress/strength ratio of '0.4' is actually because of combinations of familiar tensile and compressive strength ratios(such as 10) with Poisson's ratio(say0.25).We exceed the extensional strain limits and start to see acoustic emission(AE) when tangential stress σθ≈ 0.4σc,due to simple arithmetic.The combination of 2D theoretical FRACOD models and actual tunnelling suggests frequent initiation of failure by 'stable' extensional strain fracturing,but propagation in 'unstable' and therefore dynamic shearing.In the case of very deep tunnels(and 3D physical simulations),compressive stresses may be too high for extensional strain fracturing,and shearing will dominate,both ahead of the face and following the face.When shallower,the concept of 'extensional strain initiation but propagation' in shear is suggested.The various failure modes are richly illustrated,and the inability of conventional continuum modelling is emphasized,unless cohesion weakening and friction mobilization at different strain levels are used to reach a pseudo state of yield,but still considering a continuum.     

A simplified three-dimensional extension of Hoek-Brown strength criterion

The Hoek-Brown(HB) strength criterion has been applied widely in a large number of projects around the world.However,this criterion ignores the intermediate principal stress σ_2.Many evidences have demonstrated that the rock strength is dependent on σ_2. Thus it is necessary to extend the HB criterion into a three-dimensional(3D) form.In this study,the effect of σ_2 on the strength of rocks is identified by reviewing the true triaxial tests of various rock types reported in the literature.A simple 3D strength criterion is developed.The modified criterion is verified by the true triaxial tests of 13 rock types.The results indicate that the modified criterion can achieve a good fit to most of rock types.It can represent a series of criteria as b varies.For comparisons,several existing 3D versions of the HB criterion are selected to predict the strengths of these rock types.It is indicated that the proposed criterion works better than other criteria.A substantial relationship between parameter b and the unconfined compressive strength is established,which guarantees that the proposed criterion can still work well even in the absence of true triaxial test data.     

Stress-Dilation of Undisturbed Sand Samples in Drained and Undrained Triaxial Shear

Stress-dilation behavior of undisturbed sand samples tested in both drained and undrained triaxial shear has been studied. The stress-dilation relation is recognized as being a basic component of the stress-strain behavior of granular materials. The dilation angle, ψ commonly used to represent the dilation characteristics of the soil, is defined clearly for plane strain conditions. However, the paper discusses confusion regarding its definition under triaxial loading conditions, and adopts the definition sin ψ=-dε_v^p/dγ_max^p. Drained triaxial tests performed on specimens obtained from undisturbed block samples of sand indicated that the undisturbed material exhibits a well defined stress-dilation relation. By referring to plastic (irrecoverable) components of strain, it was found that this relation was also compatible to results of tests in undrained triaxial shear. Demonstration of this compatibility required that the small membrane penetration effects in the undrained triaxial shear tests, resulting from changing effective confining stress, be taken into account. From the results of the present investigation, and of other studies reported in the literature, it was found that the relation between friction angle, φ′ and dilation angle, ψ, under axi-symmetric conditions, as defined above, can be reasonably expressed by the empirical expression: φ′≍0.4ψ+φ′_cv.     

Effect of different mixing ratios of polystyrene pre-puff beads and cement on the mechanical behaviour of lightweight fill

A laboratory study on the formation of a lightweight fill material by blending soil with polystyrene pre-puff (PSPP) beads and other binders such as cement is presented in this paper. The effects of different compositions and different ratios between PSPP beads and soil, cement and soil, water and soil on the density, unconfined compressive strength and deformation of the lightweight fill formed are studied. It is observed that the density of the lightweight fill can be effectively controlled by the amount of PSPP beads used in making the fill. With the inclusion of merely 2–6% of PSPP beads (to soil by weight), the density of the lightweight fill formed can be reduced to 700–1100 kg/m³. The shear strength and stiffness of the lightweight fill can be controlled by adjusting the amount of cement used. The unconfined compressive strength of the lightweight fill increases considerably if a cement to soil ratio of 10–15% is used. Compared with the expanded polystyrene (EPS) block geofoam, the PSPP beads mixed lightweight fill has a higher density, but higher shear strength and higher stiffness too. It can be used as a substitute of EPS blocks when irregular shaped volumes are to be filled or when stronger fill materials are required.     

泡沫剂在EPS轻集料混凝土中应用研究

以混凝土的表观密度和抗压强度为考核指标,对泡沫剂在EPS轻集料混凝土中不同掺量的试验研究。研究表明,在一定的泡沫剂掺量范围以内,它可以减小混凝土的表观密度,减轻墙体材料自重,但是泡沫剂掺量过大时,这种效果不明显,反而使表观密度有所增加。考虑到对保温墙体材料的表观密度和强度要求,文中通过试验找到了泡沫剂的最佳掺量范围。     

泡沫塑料混合轻质土在循环荷载下的力学性质

泡沫塑料混合轻质土是一种性质优良的轻质土,能够有效提高路基稳定性,减小路基的沉降。材料在道路循环荷载下的强度低于静力强度,以静力强度作为设计参数偏于危险。通过室内试验研究了循环荷载下泡沫塑料混合轻质土的力学性质,发现在循环荷载下泡沫塑料混合轻质土的应力应变关系有稳定型和破坏型两种,临界加载比建议取0.75,即在循环荷载下的强度宜取为无侧限抗压强度的0.75倍;破坏应变大于一次加载的情况,且随加载比的增加而减小;回弹曲线和再压缩曲线斜率相近,而且随循环次数的增加基本不变。