用复合振子模型计算纳米尺度滑动摩擦力的研究

以光滑界面摩擦为研究对象,探讨用复合振子模型计算纳米尺度滑动摩擦力的原理和方法,推导出滑动摩擦力和摩擦因数的计算公式,并用原子力显微镜探针在硅试样和云母试样上做扫描实验进行验证。实验值与理论计算值的对比结果表明,两者所反映的规律基本一致,表明所提出的理论和方法可行。研究表明,滑动摩擦力与接触面积成线性增长关系,并随宏观振子横向刚度的增大而减小,由于可通过改变摩擦表面的几何形貌来改变宏观振子的横向刚度,因此这一结论将为摩擦控制提供一种新途径。     

Study of interfacial friction mechanism based on the coupled-oscillator model

A new coupled-oscillator model, in which the relationship of the lateral force and the normal force are considered, is proposed for the interfacial friction. The Maugis-Dugdal model is used to approximately substitute the Lennard-Jones potential of the interfacial friction in the new model. The mechanism of microscopic sliding and the energy dissipation mechanism of friction are discussed. The formulae for frictional force calculation are then deduced. Based on theoretical analysis, it is found that the frictional force increases approximately as 2/3 the power of the normal force for a tip-sample contact system, which is same as the classical conclusion of nano-tribology. A comparison between the theoretical results and the experimental data obtained with an atomic force microscope is presented at the end of the paper. The result has shown that the new coupled-oscillator model and the formulae deduced are feasible.     

Calculating frictional force with considering material microstructure and potential on contact surfaces

A method based on the energy dissipation mechanism of an Independent Oscillator model is used to calculate the frictional force and the friction coefficient of interfacial friction. The friction work is calculated with considering the potential change of contact surfaces during sliding. The potential change can be gained by a universal adhesive energy function. The relationships between frictional force and parameters of a tribo-system, such as surface energy and microstructure of interfacial material, are set up. The calculation results of the known experimental data denote that the frictional force is nearly proportional to the surface energy of the material, nearly inversely proportional to the scaling length, and independent of the lattice constant. The results agree with that of adhesion friction equations. They also agree with the experimental results performed with an atomic-force microscope under the ultra high vacuum condition. __________ Translated from Tribology, 2006, 26(2): 159–162 [译自: 摩擦学学报]     

Surface roughness and the friction and adhesion of elastomers

When certain elastomers are traversed over clean counterfaces true interfacial sliding is not apparent. Relative motion is achieved by propagation of Voltara or macroscopic dislocations. These dislocations, which are known as Schallamach waves, can be readily observed provided that one of the contacting pair is transparent. It has been possible to account for the energy dissipated during this process, and hence the frictional force, in terms of the energy required to peel the interface apart at the front of the dislocation. The level of this energy dissipation was studied in direct peeling experiments and was found to be a marked function of peeling velocity and surface roughness. The influence of surface topography in peeling and friction experiments was considered in some detail. In peeling, changes in roughness greatly modified the adhesion process, whereas the frictional force was relatively unchanged by the introduction of surface roughness.     

新型弧面摩擦阻尼器力学性能研究

为克服传统摩擦阻尼器自适应能力差及耗能能力低的缺点,提出了一种新型弧面摩擦阻尼器,该阻尼器的结构特征在于其摩擦板和滑块的滑移面均为弧形,两滑块之间装有压缩橡胶,阻尼器通过摩擦板与滑块之间的移动产生摩擦力实现耗能。建立了阻尼器的机理模型,并采用数值模型验证了机理模型的合理性,分析了加载频率和橡胶弹簧初始压缩量对阻尼器滞回阻尼特性的影响规律。研究结果表明：该新型阻尼器具有马鞍形滞回曲线,其摩擦力具有位移随变性;该阻尼器的耗能能力比传统摩擦阻尼器强,耗能能力最多提高了23.84%;其力学性能与加载频率相关性较小,而橡胶弹簧预紧力越大,阻尼器的滞回耗能能力越强。     

On the equivalent friction factor in hydrofilm extrusion

Hydrofilm extrusion is a kind of hydrostatic extrusion which uses a minimum amount of oil as lubricant and pressure-transmitting medium. In hydrofilm extrusion energy dissipation in the fluid lubricant between the die and working material corresponds to sliding friction in ordinary lubricated extrusion using solid lubricants. Utilizing the upper-bound theorm, an “equivalent” friction factor is defined so that the overall frictional effect between the die and working material can be conveniently investigated in terms of geometrical parameters and press velocity. On the basis of this definition, the effects of various process parameters on the frictional characteristics in hydrofilm extrusion are discussed. It is consequently found that the dominant contribution to frictional energy dissipation is made by reduction of area and press velocity. Die length is found to have very little influence on the equivalent friction factor in so far as it is longer than billet diameter.     

The dissipation of energy in the friction of rubber

The sliding of rubber over glass when waves of detachment are responsible for the relative motion at the interface has been studied. The frictional force and the velocity and frequency of the waves were recorded for various sliding conditions. In a separate experiment, the work required to peel apart and then re-adhere unit area of rubber-glass interface was measured as a function of peeling velocity. Assuming that the passing of a wave corresponds to a peeling and re-adhering of the contact area, the work of adhesion is calculated from the friction observations and compared with the values measured directly. The good correlation which is found indicates that in these circumstances the frictional energy dissipation may be accounted for in terms of the net work of adhesion.     

Shaking force balancing of a 2-DOF isotropic horological oscillator

Despite centuries of research and significant advances, the escapement mechanism used to count and maintain oscillations of mechanical time bases remains a complex mechanism and a major source of energy losses. We showed in previous work that, instead of the widely used rotational one degree-of-freedom (DOF) oscillators, 2-DOF flexure oscillators have the potential of revolutionizing mechanical watchmaking by eliminating the traditional escapement, replacing it by a simple crank driving a pin. Additionally, using flexures increases the quality factor of the time base, leading to further potential improvements in timekeeping accuracy and energy consumption. However, a significant challenge of these new time bases is their balancing such that the influence of external accelerations on their frequency is minimized, a necessary condition for accurate timekeeping in portable applications. This article presents a novel 2-DOF planar flexure oscillator called Wattwins and demonstrates how it can be made insensitive to linear accelerations such as gravity. For this purpose, a new approach to shaking force balancing is developed based on the decomposition of perturbations into effects corresponding to different orders of center of mass displacement. A full analytical model for frequency tuning and shaking force balancing of the 2-DOF oscillator is derived using a pseudo-rigid-body model and assuming that it can be decomposed into two independent 1-DOF oscillators. The results are validated by the finite element method and show that practical mechanical watch specifications can theoretically be reached. A physical prototype was also constructed and preliminary experimental results confirm the theory as well as the simulations.     

Atomic-scale study of friction and energy dissipation

This paper presents an analysis of the interaction energy and various forces between two surfaces, and the microscopic study of friction. Atomic-scale simulations of dry sliding friction and boundary lubrication are based on the classical molecular dynamics (CMD) calculations using realistic empirical potentials. The dry sliding of a single metal asperity on an incommensurate substrate surface exhibits a quasi-periodic variation of the lateral force with two different stick-slip stage involving two structural transformation followed by a wear. The contact area of the asperity increases discontinuously with increasing normal force. Xe atoms placed between two atomically flat Ni surfaces screen the Ni-Ni interaction, decrease the corrugation of the potential energy as well as the friction force at submonolayer coverage. We present a phononic model of energy dissipation from an asperity to the substrates.     

Friction force microscopy as a probe of molecular relaxation on polymer surfaces

The scan-velocity dependence of friction force microscopy (FFM) is characterized on nominally-dry gelatin films and related to the rate dependence of dissipative molecular relaxations. For a range of scanning-parameter values the measurement itself affects the frictional characteristics of the films: imparted frictional energy populates molecular conformations from which more dissipative relaxations occur. Variations in frictional dissipation tens of nanometers in lateral size are quantified as histograms of the number of image pixels versus frictional force. Histogram breadth and symmetry apparently reflect the energy dispersion of molecular relaxations.     

Friction and wear of poly(phenylene sulphide) and its carbon fibre composites: II water lubrication

Water is found to be an effective boundary lubricant for carbon-fibre-reinforced poly(phenylene sulphide) sliding against steel. With increasing load, the interfacial contact temperature, friction and wear increase. The frictional force and friction coefficient exhibit a minimum at a fibre content of 5–10 wt.%. A minimum in wear appears at a fibre content of 5–10 wt.% and a maximum at about 45 wt.%. No appreciable differences are found between the wear with water lubrication and unlubricated, while the pressure-velocity limit is remarkably enhanced implying that this composite is insensitive to water and is an all round wear-resistant material.     

Nanoscale Tribology,Energy Dissipation and Failure Mechanisms of Nano- and Micro-silica Particle-filled Polymer Composites

Nanoscale energy dissipation and failure mechanics of silica nano- and micro-particle-filled polymer composite have been evaluated using advanced electron microscopy, scanning probe microscopy and nanoindentation techniques. Objective of this study is to understand the role of nano-microstructure and strength of particle–matrix interface and effects of geometrical gradient (spatial variation of surface height) and mechanical gradient (spatial variation of effective modulus) on energy dissipation process and subsequent failure mechanisms. In order to understand the role of geometrical gradient and mechanical gradient during the energy dissipation process, we carried out amplitude modulation simulation of soft–hard–soft surfaces with zero initial height and with 10 nm initial height of the hard material. Nanoindentation results show hardness and reduced modulus of the nanocomposite are homogeneous; however, the hardness and reduced modulus of the microcomposite were found to be heterogeneous. In the microcomposite, the sharp edges of particles increase friction, and heterogeneous mechanical properties result in high-energy dissipation. Large particles with weak interfacial bonding were easily removed, it resulting in defects on the sliding surface that acted as failure “hot-spots”. These characteristics result in relatively high friction and wear of the microcomposite. The nanocomposite showed better tribo-mechanical performance compared with that of the micro-particle-filled composite.     

Interfacial potential barrier theory of friction and wear

An interfacial potential barrier theory to calculate friction and wear is proposed by considering the micro interaction of frictional surfaces. The theory suggests that the performance of friction and wear depends on the magnitude and distribution of the interfacial potential barrier on contact surfaces. The calculation methods of the interfacial potential barrier and standard interfacial potential barrier are then studied and the formulas to calculate the friction force, friction coefficient, and quantity of adhesion wear are derived based on the theory. With its independence and stability, the standard interfacial potential barrier can be used as an index to describe the frictional performance of materials. The calculation results of the friction force with some existing experimental data are consistent with the experimental results performed with an ultra high vacuum atomic-force microscope, which proves that the theory and method are feasible.     

Analysis of bilinear oscillators under harmonic loading using nonlinear output frequency response functions

In this paper, the new concept of nonlinear output frequency response functions (NOFRFs) is extended to the harmonic input case, an input-independent relationship is found between the NOFRFs and the generalized frequency response functions (GFRFs). This relationship can greatly simplify the application of the NOFRFs. Then, beginning with the demonstration that a bilinear oscillator can be approximated using a polynomial-type nonlinear oscillator, the NOFRFs are used to analyse the energy transfer phenomenon of bilinear oscillators in the frequency domain. The analysis provides insight into how new frequency generation can occur using bilinear oscillators and how the sub-resonances occur for the bilinear oscillators, and reveals that it is the resonant frequencies of the NOFRFs that dominate the occurrence of this well-known nonlinear behaviour. The results are of significance for the design and fault diagnosis of mechanical systems and structures which can be described by a bilinear oscillator model.     

Simulations on atomic-scale friction between self-assembled monolayers: Phononic energy dissipation

Atomic-scale friction between self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on Au (1 1 1) has been studied through molecular dynamics simulations, with emphasis on the mechanism of energy dissipation. Results show that the shear stress and chain angle on commensurate SAMs exhibit a clean periodic pattern and atomic stick–slip friction, which manifests a gradual storage and sudden release of energy. Using a simple model of two atoms, analysis shows that the atomic stick–slip originates from the dynamic instability of molecule motion. Energy has been built up during the stick, followed by a sudden separation as the equilibrium becomes unstable, and most energy dissipates at the time of slip. Moreover, the simulations reveal that more energy is stored and released in commensurate sliding, resulting in much higher friction than that in incommensurate cases. The contradictory frictional behavior can be traced to the difference in the number and strength of the Van der Waals bonds, formed in the two types of contacts.     

Optimum film thickness of thin metallic coatings on silicon substrates for low load sliding applications

The frictional behaviour of thin metallic films on silicon substrates sliding against 52100 steel balls is presented. The motivation of this work is to identify an optimum film thickness that will result in low friction under relatively low loads for various metallic films. Dry sliding friction experiments on silicon substrates with soft metallic coatings (silver, copper, tin and zinc) of various thickness (1–2000 nm) were conducted using a reciprocating pin-on-flat type apparatus under a controlled environment. A thermal vapour deposition technique was used to produce pure and smooth coatings. The morphology of the films was examined using an atomic force microscope, a non-contact optical profilometer and a scanning electron microscope. Following the sliding tests, the sliding tracks were examined by various surface characterization techniques and tools. The results indicate that the frictional characteristics of silicon are improved by coating the surface with a thin metallic film, and furthermore, an optimum film thickness can be identified for silver, copper and zinc coatings. In most cases ploughing marks could be found on the film which suggests that plastic deformation of the film is the dominant mode by which frictional energy dissipation occurred. Based on this observation, the frictional behaviour of thin metallic coatings under low loads is discussed and friction coefficients are correlated with an energy based friction model.     

Real-time atomic force microscopy in lubrication condition

We have studied frictional force and wear problem in real-time atomic force microscopy in contact-mode using a resonator type mechanical scanner allegedly reported. The fast scanning may cause wear in the sample surface or the tip, and may deteriorate the image quality. Mineral oil was used to make a lubricious surface on a polycarbonate sample, and it was found that the interfacial frictional force was decreased. A Si tip which was coated with a hydrophobic film by means of chemical modification was confirmed to diminish the frictional force in the fast scanning process. The resultant image quality was improved due to reduced friction and wear.     

Investigation on Friction Trauma of Small Intestine In Vivo Under Reciprocal Sliding Conditions

In the process of surgery, operation equipments or materials inevitably rub against the internal organs or tissues of patient, which often causes a series of frictional trauma problems. However, research work on the tribological factors at the interface and subsequent friction trauma is still very limited. In this paper, the friction trauma mechanism of small intestine caused by the surgeon’s fingers in the process of grasping and pulling operation was investigated in vivo by means of reciprocal sliding friction testing. The rabbit small intestine was used to simulate human small intestine. An UMT-II tribometer was used to measure tribological parameters of the rabbit small intestine under different normal force of 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 N to simulate the grip strength of surgeon’s hands. Histological analysis was used to evaluate the degree of tissue damage. Results showed that the ratio of tangential force to normal force of rabbit small intestine decreased with the normal force increasing. The frictional behavior under the three normal forces was all in the tissue damage range of intermediate regime from sticking to relative sliding. With the normal force and friction time increasing, the total friction energy dissipation on the small intestine increased, which induced the damage degree of the small intestine aggravation. The damage of rabbit small intestine extended gradually from outside to inside: serosa layer tearing and falling, muscularis bleeding, longitudinal muscularis and circular muscularis division and mucosal bleeding and necrosis.     

The effect of an alumina counterface on friction reduction of CuO/3Y-TZP composite at room temperature

The friction behavior of CuO/yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia (3Y-TZP) composite in dry sliding against alumina at room temperature has been investigated. The results show that an alumina counterface has a crucial role on the frictional behavior when sliding against CuO/3Y-TZP composite in comparison with other counter materials. Pure 3Y-TZP shows high friction and wear under the same conditions. It is found that the friction reduction behavior is dependent on the sliding test conditions such as load and humidity. A thin aluminum-rich layer less than 200 nm thick on the contact surface during the low friction situation has been found by various analyzing techniques including interference microscopy, micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microcopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The induced change of contact conditions and interfacial chemical reaction between CuO and alumina to form the phase CuAlO₂ increase the wear of alumina and accelerates the formation of an aluminum-rich surface layer. The presence of such a layer in the contact is beneficial for reducing friction. After a certain sliding distance, the coefficient of friction shifts from a low value to a high value due to a change in the dominating wear mechanism. This transition is shown to be caused by a different composition and thickness of the interfacial layer.     

Atomic Friction Modulation on the Reconstructed Au(111) Surface

Friction between a nanoscale tip and a reconstructed Au(111) surface is investigated both by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and molecular statics calculations. Lateral force AFM images exhibit atomic lattice stick–slip behavior with a superstructure corresponding to the herringbone reconstruction pattern. However, the superstructure contrast is not primarily due to variations in the local frictional dissipation (which corresponds to the local width of the friction loop). Rather, the contrast occurs primarily because the local centerline position of the friction loop is periodically shifted from its usual value of zero. Qualitatively, similar behavior is reproduced in atomistic simulations of an AFM tip sliding on the reconstructed Au(111) substrate. In both simulations and experiments, this centerline modulation effect is not observed on unreconstructed surfaces. Similarly, using a topographically flat surface as a hypothetical control system, the simulations show that the centerline modulation is not caused by variations in the reconstructed surface’s topography. Rather, we attribute it to the long-range variation of the local average value of the tip-sample interaction potential that arises from the surface reconstruction. In other words, surface atoms located at unfavorable sites, i.e., in the transition between face-centered-cubic (FCC) and hexagonal-close-packed (HCP) regions, have a higher surface free energy. This leads to a varying conservative force which locally shifts the centerline position of the friction force. This demonstrates that stick–slip behavior in AFM can serve as a rather sensitive probe of the local energetics of surface atoms, with an attainable lateral spatial resolution of a few nanometers.