Residual Deformation of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Sand in Plane Strain Compression Affected by Viscous Properties of Geosynthetic Reinforcement

A series of plane strain compression (PSC) tests were performed on large sand specimens unreinforced or reinforced with prototype geosynthetic reinforcements, either of two geogrid types and one geocomposite type. Local tensile strains in the reinforcement were measured by using two types of strain gauges. Sustained loading (SL) under fixed boundary stress conditions and cyclic loading (CL) tests were performed during otherwise monotonic loading at a constant strain rate to evaluate the development of creep deformation by SL and residual deformation by CL of geosynthetic-reinforced sand and also residual strains in the reinforcement by these loading histories. It is shown that the creep deformation of geosynthetic-reinforced sand develops due to the viscous properties of both sand and geosynthetic reinforcement, while the residual deformation of geosynthetic-reinforced sand during CL (defined at the peak stress state during CL) consists of two components: i) the one by the viscous properties of sand and reinforcement; and ii) the other by rate-independent cyclic loading effects with sand. The development of residual deformation of geosynthetic-reinforced sand by SL and CL histories had no negative effects on the subsequent stress-strain behaviour and the compressive strength was maintained as the original value or even became larger by such SL and CL histories. The local tensile strains in the geosynthetic reinforcement arranged in the sand specimen subjected to SL decreased noticeably with time, due mainly to lateral compressive creep strains in sand during SL of geosynthetic-reinforced sand. This result indicates that, with geosynthetic-reinforced soil structures designed to have a sufficiently high safety factor under static loading conditions because of seismic design, it is overly conservative to assume that the tensile load in the geosynthetic reinforcement is maintained constant for long life time. Moreover, during CL of geosynthetic-reinforced sand, the residual tensile strains in the geosynthetic reinforcement did not increase like global strains in the geosynthetic-reinforced sand that increased significantly during CL. These different trends of behaviour were also due to the creep compressive strains in the lateral direction of sand that developed during CL of geosynthetic-reinforced sand.     

平面应变加–卸载试验中砂土的黏性特征及本构模型化

 通过丰浦砂的平面应变循环加载试验,分析砂土在加–卸载条件下相应的黏性特征。试验比较不同加载应变速率下2组砂土的应力–应变响应,进行蠕变加载,着重研究卸载过程中砂土的黏性特征。试验表明砂土的黏性特征与加载速率以及应力水平密切相关,且加载速率变化所引起的砂土黏性会随着加载的继续和应变的增大而逐渐衰减。卸载开始后,砂土垂直应变并未立即降低,而在一段时间范围内仍旧保持增大趋势。卸载过程中的蠕变试验还表明砂土具有“蠕变恢复”的特性。针对砂土的以上黏性特征,基于三要素模型的基本框架,提出瞬时黏性效应(TESRA)模型用以模拟加载和卸载阶段砂土黏性特征。根据试验所得到的砂土应力–应变关系,对第一次加载循环(初始加载–卸载)的砂土应力–应变响应和时程响应进行模拟,并证明瞬时黏性效应(TESRA)模型能够比较精确地模拟砂土在加–卸载循环中的黏性特征。     

Rate-Dependent Load-Strain Behaviour of Geogrid Arranged in Sand Under Plane Strain Compression

A number of previous experimental studies showed that polymer geogrid reinforcement as well as sand exhibit significantly rate-dependent behaviour. The viscous properties of polymer geogrids and Toyoura sand were independently evaluated by changing stepwise the strain rate as well as performing sustained loading and load/stress relaxation tests during otherwise monotonic loading in, respectively, tensile loading tests and drained plane strain compression (PSC) tests. The viscous properties of the two types of material were separately formulated in the same framework of non-linear three-component rheology model. The viscous response of geogrid-reinforced sand in PSC is significant, controlled by viscous properties of geogrid and sand. Local strain distributions in the reinforced sand specimen were evaluated by photogrametric analysis and used to determine the time history of the tensile strain in the geogrid. The time history of tensile load activated in the geogrid during sustained loading of reinforced sand specimen was deduced by analysing the measured time history of geogrid strain by the non-linear three-component model. It was found that the tensile load in the geogrid reinforcement arranged in a sand specimen subjected to fixed boundary loads could decrease with time. In that case, the possibility of creep rupture of geogrid is very low.     

A Simple Pneumatic Loading System Controlling Stress and Strain Rates for One-Dimensional Compression of Clay

A simple but automated pneumatic loading system that can control the stress and strain rates for one-dimensional (1D) compression of clay was developed. The rate-dependency of stress-strain behaviour due to the viscous property of clay was investigated by 1D compression tests on standard-size specimens by various loading methods: 1) Standard Consolidation Tests (SCTs), stepwise increasing the axial stress two times every one day; 2) ordinary Constant-Rate-of-Strain (CRS) tests at different strain rates; 3) special CRS tests including unloading and reloading cycles with different stress amplitudes at strain rates of which the absolute value was either kept constant throughout respective tests or changed at the start of reloading; and 4) special CRS tests including a number of sustained loading (SL) during otherwise primary loading or unloading or reloading at constant strain rate. Sufficiently low strain rates were employed to ensure essentially fully drained condition. The followings were found. Despite that the newly developed pneumatic loading system is rather simple, 1D compression tests following such various loading histories as above can be performed on four types of clay rather accurately. The stress-strain behaviour of clay is significantly rate-dependent, exhibiting significant creep strains at SL stages. The creep strain rate is significantly different whether SL starts during otherwise primary loading or unloading or reloading, controlled by the magnitude and sign of the initial strain rate at the start of SL. The whole observed trends of rate-dependent stress-strain behaviour can be qualitatively explained by the non-linear three-component elasto-viscoplastic model extended to cyclic loading conditions.     

钢-连续纤维复合筋(SFCB)力学性能试验研究与理论分析

本文对工业化制备的钢-连续纤维复合筋(SFCB)制品进行了单向拉伸和反复拉伸试验,观察其破坏过程和破坏特征,测定其初期刚度、二次刚度、屈服强度、极限强度、卸载刚度、残余变形。试验结果表明,SFCB的荷载-应变关系曲线在纤维断裂前呈现出明显的双折线,钢筋屈服后SFCB具有稳定的二次刚度、小的残余变形和良好的可恢复性能。根据材料的复合法则推导出了SFCB单调加载下应力-应变关系的理论计算模型,针对根据现有钢筋和纤维材料恢复力模型直接采用复合法则得到的SFCB反复拉伸的理论模型和试验结果误差较大的情况,基于SFCB反复拉伸的荷载-应变试验曲线特征,经过统计分析,构建了SFCB反复拉伸下应力-应变关系恢复力模型,该模型良好地揭示了SFCB在反复加载下其卸载模量随塑性发展而逐渐退化的规律,与试验数据进行比较,发现均吻合较好,证明了可以通过理论计算对SFCB的力学性能进行预测和设计。     

基于非接触式观测技术的FRP/ECC复合材料#br# 反复受拉本构关系模型

考虑不同种类的纤维复合材料（FRP）格栅、格栅层数及加卸载循环方式,采用非接触式观测技术（DIC）和传统应变片测量方法,对FRP格栅与ECC复合材料试件进行了单轴反复拉伸试验,研究复合材料的轴向抗拉力学性能,验证DIC非接触式观测技术的有效性。在试验结果的基础上,提出了FRP/ECC复合材料反复受拉本构关系模型。试验结果表明,玄武岩（BFRP）格栅/ECC能充分地发挥纤维格栅的材料性能和ECC基体的高延伸性和多点开裂特性,显著提高ECC基体的极限抗拉强度。不同循环加载方式对FRP/ECC复合材料试件的加卸载路径有显著影响,但对其极限应力/应变的影响较小。BFRP/ECC复合材料的变形恢复能力要优于CFRP/ECC复合材料的变形恢复能力。DIC非接触式观测技术能有效地捕捉到试件的开裂,观测裂缝的萌生、发展过程,获得破坏形态,获得应力-应变全曲线。计算结果表明,建议的应力-应变关系模型与试验结果吻合较好,可以有效地预测FRP/ECC复合材料的反复受拉本构关系。     

加载速率变化条件下砂土的黏塑特性及本构模型

 分析并研究饱和的、风干的砂土在平面应变压缩试验条件下的弹黏塑性特征,尤其是黏性特性。加载速率效应、蠕变以及应力松弛都是砂土材料本身黏性的反映,而与超孔隙水压力的消散无关。试验不仅实现了应变率逐步变化加载过程,同时也实现了蠕变加载和应力松弛过程。试验结果表明,在加载应变率发生突变时,对砂土应力–应变关系有明显的影响,呈现出刚性很高、近似于弹性的特性,而后随着应变的进一步增加,在明显屈服之后黏性应力逐渐衰减至基本惟一的应力–应变曲线。类似现象同样也发生在蠕变加载或应力松弛后以一恒定应变率突然重新加载的情况。基于非线性三要素模型框架,针对所观察到的砂土黏性特性,提出一种弹黏塑性本构模型。该模型可以描述砂土在任意加载历史下的黏性效应,包括加载应变率发生任意变化时的应力–应变响应、蠕变以及应力松弛。最后,利用该模型对上述砂土平面应变压缩试验结果进行模拟,所提案的三要素弹黏塑性本构模型能够很好地模拟砂土的黏性特性。     

Shaking table tests on gravel slopes reinforced by concrete canvas

The behaviour and performance of different reinforced slopes during earthquake loading were investigated through a series of shaking table tests. Concrete-canvas and composite reinforcement (geogrid attached to concrete-canvas) were proposed for reinforcing slopes. By considering the effects of different reinforcement methods, the seismic responses of the reinforced slopes were analysed, along with the accelerations, crest settlements, and lateral displacements. The failure patterns of different model slopes were compared using white coral sand marks placed at designated elevations to monitor the internal slide of the reinforced slopes. Both the concrete-canvas and composite reinforcement could increase the safety distance, which ranged from the slide-out point to the back of the model box. The composite reinforcement decreased the volume of the landslide and increased the failure surface angle as a result of the larger global stiffness in the reinforced zone. These results indicate that the recently developed concrete canvas has a better effect on restricting the slope deformation during seismic loading than the nonwoven geotextile reinforcement, and that the use of composite reinforcement could improve the seismic resistance of slopes.     

Effects of Geosynthetic Reinforcement Type on the Strength and Stiffness of Reinforced Sand in Plane Strain Compression

The effects of geosynthetic reinforcement type on the strength and stiffness of reinforced sand were evaluated by performing a series of drained plane strain compression tests on large sand specimens. The reinforcement type is described in terms of the degree of unification of the constituting components (for geocomposites) as well as the tensile strength and stiffness, the covering ratio and others (for geocomposites and geogrids). Sand specimens reinforced with different geosynthetic reinforcement types exhibited significantly different reinforcing effects. A geocomposite made of a woven geotextile sheet sandwiched firmly with two sheets of non-woven geotextile, having a 100% effective covering ratio, exhibited reinforcing effects higher than typical stiff and strong geogrids. With some geocomposite types, the reinforcing effects increase substantially by better unifying longitudinally arranged stiff and strong yarns and non-woven geotextile sheets. When fixed firm to the yarns, the non-woven geotextile sheets function like the transversal members of a geogrid by locally transmitting load activated by interaction with the backfill to the yarns. These geocomposites can exhibit reinforcing effects equivalent to those with stiff and strong geogrids. Local strain fields of the specimens are presented to show that, for reinforced sand, the peak stress state reached is always associated with the development of shear band(s) in the sand and a higher peak strength is achieved when the strain localisation starts at a larger global axial strain due to better reinforcing effects.     

In-plane cyclic behaviour of a new reinforced masonry system: Experimental results

This paper describes the behaviour under cyclic shear compression of an innovative reinforced masonry system, composed of horizontally perforated units, having common steel bars or prefabricated trusses as horizontal reinforcement. At the wall edges or crossings, confining columns for vertical reinforcement are built with vertically perforated units. Experimental tests to obtain information on the in-plane cyclic behaviour of the construction system were performed on masonry panels made of horizontally perforated units and on completed reinforced masonry walls. Tests on the entire system were repeated for two wall aspect ratios and two vertical stress levels, in order to force shear type and flexural behaviour. In particular, this paper presents: (a) results of shear compression tests in terms of strength, ductility parameters, energy dissipation, viscous damping and stiffness degradation, (b) strains and the effectiveness of reinforcement, (c) the influence of various parameters such as axial load, aspect ratio, and reinforcement type on the behaviour of the reinforced masonry walls, and (d) comparison of walls built with and without vertical reinforcement.     

循环加、卸载孔隙水压力对砂岩变形特性影响实验研究

 利用MTS815岩石力学实验系统对饱和砂岩进行三轴等围压情况下的循环加、卸载孔隙水压力实验。结果表明：压密阶段的加、卸载曲线中出现了很多“Z”状的波动,这些小波的出现没有规律性,初始残余变形比较大,还没有形成明显的滞回曲线。在弹性耦合阶段稳定滞回曲线加载时,应变呈上凹“Z”状波动,在到达上限值前出现拐点,应变达最大值;卸载时,应变呈下凸“Z”状波动,在到达下限值前出现拐点,应变达最小值,该阶段形成稳定的滞回曲线,表现形式由疏变密,稳定滞回曲线包含弹性变形向塑性变形演化。在孔隙水压力的不同上限值和不同幅值区间的耗散能构成不对称“X”形。在加载段,随着孔隙水压力增大,耗散能逐渐减小;卸载段,随着孔隙水压力减小,耗散能逐渐减小。“X”形的交点出现的位置和夹角与不同上限值和不同幅值区间有关。在循环加、卸载孔隙水压力作用下,残余应变与循环次数的关系符合乘幂负指数关系。     

基于IDARC的RC剪力墙Park恢复力模型参数修正

使用IDARC非线性分析程序对RC剪力墙构件进行拟静力反复加载非线性分析,研究Park恢复力模型4个参数对剪力墙构件强度、刚度、卸载刚度、耗能和等效粘滞阻尼的影响规律及影响程度。将修正后的参数运用于剪力墙低周往复荷载试验的数值模拟,得到的结果与试验结果较为吻合,并根据得到的数据提出了针对RC剪力墙构件的Park恢复力模型参数建议取值范围。研究结果表明:刚度退化参数α对剪力墙构件的卸载刚度、耗能及等效粘滞阻尼有较大影响;基于延性的强度退化参数β1对构件的强度影响较大,对耗能及等效粘滞阻尼有中度影响;基于能量的强度退化参数β2对构件的各项抗震指标均有轻微影响;滑移退化参数γ对构件的耗能及等效粘滞阻尼有较大影响。     

纯主应力轴旋转下饱和软黏土的循环弱化及非共轴性

采用空心圆柱扭剪仪对原状饱和软黏土进行了纯主应力轴旋转应力路径的循环不排水试验,加载过程中维持平均应力、广义剪应力和中主应力系数不变。观测了孔隙水压和各应变分量在循环加载过程中的变化特性,着重探讨了中主应力系数及广义剪应力对变形刚度以及非共轴特性的影响规律。主应力偏转的循环剪切路径下,存在扭转剪切和轴向剪切两种不同的循环应力应变响应。试验结果表明:循环加载路径下饱和软黏土的孔压及应变产生累积效应,应力应变刚度呈现各向异性弱(强)化效应,而应变增量呈现显著的非共轴性;中主应力系数b影响特性表现为,b值越大则刚度弱化越显著。试验观察还发现,剪应力水平较低时循环变形刚度表现为强化,非共轴角趋于增大;反之,剪应力水平较高时,伴随着循环弱化,非共轴角趋于减小。     

Cyclic behaviour of dry silty sand reinforced with a geotextile

Recent studies on construction material technology have indicated that soil reinforcement improves resistance of soil against compression and tension. Due to the wide use of geotextile reinforcement in road construction, the potential benefit of geotextile reinforcement in cyclic loading should be investigated. In this study we performed a series of cyclic triaxial tests to examine dry silty sand reinforced with geotextile when subjected to dynamic loading. These tests were conducted on reinforced and unreinforced dry sand and sand mixed with varying amounts of silt (0–50%). The main factors affecting the cyclic behaviour, such as the arrangement and number of geotextile layers, confined pressure and silt content are examined and discussed in this paper. The results indicate that geotextile inclusion and increased confining pressure increase the axial modulus and decreased cyclic ductility of dry sand for all silt contents examined. Also, it was found that by increasing the silt content by up to about 35 percent the axial modulus in reinforced and unreinforced sand is decreased and cyclic ductility increased. With further increases in silt content, these values are increased for cyclic axial modulus and decreased for cyclic ductility.     

Effects of Viscous Property and Wetting on 1-D Compression of Clay and Model Simulation

A series of one-dimensional (1D) compression tests on compacted kaolin powder were performed to evaluate the combined effects of the viscous property and wetting on the elasto-viscoplastic deformation of soil. In the tests, both creep deformation and collapse deformation due to wetting were allowed to take place at various fixed stress states during otherwise monotonic loading at a fixed strain rate. Combined effects of the viscous property and wetting on the stress-strain behaviour observed during 1-D compression were described by incorporating the wetting effects into a non-linear three-component elasto-viscoplastic model (a 3C model). Based on the experimental results, the effects of wetting on the inviscid stress and the irreversible strain relation of the plastic component of the 3C model and the property of the viscous component, having an Isotach property, are formulated as a function of the degree of saturation. Complicated rate- and time-dependent stress-strain behaviour observed during saturation at a fixed stress state and subsequent monotonic loading at a constant strain rate were successfully simulated.     

考虑主应力轴旋转效应的交通荷载下饱和软黏土变形特性试验研究

 采用空心圆柱扭剪仪对原状饱和软黏土开展交通荷载诱发主应力幅值与主应力轴旋转耦合加载路径下的不排水试验研究。通过与循环三轴压缩试验对比,探讨主应力轴旋转对孔压、变形和应力–应变的影响。分析广义剪应力对循环刚度和非共轴性的影响。试验结果表明,相比较循环三轴试验,交通荷载应力路径下所诱发的主应力轴旋转使孔压和应变显著变大,应力–应变滞回圈刚度显著弱化。循环耦合加载路径下,存在剪切应力–应变和正偏应力–应变2种响应,应力–应变刚度呈现各向异性弱(强)化,应变增量矢量有显著的非共轴性,非共轴性有显著分段特征。较低剪应力水平下,应变路径轨迹趋于稳定,循环刚度表现为强化,非共轴性趋于增大;而较高剪应力水平下,应变路径轨迹趋于破坏,随循环弱化,非共轴性减小。     

Viscous Property of Toyoura Sand Over a Wide Range of Shear Deformation Rate and its Model Simulation

As part of a long-term research program to evaluate the rate effects on the stress-strain behaviour of geomaterials, the viscous properties of a poorly-graded relatively angular quartz-rich sand, Toyoura sand, under air-dried conditions, were investigated by performing a comprehensive series of direct shear (DS) tests at a fixed normal stress equal to 50 kPa. The tests were performed on loose and dense specimens subjected to the following different loading histories: a) monotonic loading (ML) at constant shear displacement rate (s) differing by a factor up to 100,000; b) ML at constant s including otherwise a number of step changes in s by a factor of 100; and c) a number of sustained loading (SL) stages during otherwise ML at constant values of s differing by a factor up to 1,000. Tests a) revealed that, with dense specimens, the peak shear strength is remarkably independent of s while the residual shear strength noticeably decreases with an increase in s. That is, the viscous property is the so-called TESRA type at the peak stress state, while it is the so-called Positive & Negative (P&N) type at the residual state. With loose specimens, both peak and residual shear strengths decrease with an increase in s, indicating that the viscous property is already the P&N type at the peak stress state and definitely so at the residual state. These results are qualitatively and quantitatively consistent with those from tests b), by which the viscosity properties were quantified in terms of the rate-sensitivity coefficient. The results from tests c) showed that creep shear displacement, Δs, increases with a decrease in the tangent stiffness at the immediately preceding ML phase or with an increase in the shear stress level during the SL stage. The value of Δs for a given period steadily increases with an increase in s during the immediately preceding ML phase. These trends of viscous behaviour are simulated all very well by a non-linear three-component model incorporating a general expression of viscous stress.     

Effects of sustained axial load and cooling phase on post-fire behaviour of reinforced concrete stub columns

In this paper is presented an experimental investigation of the effects of preload and cooling phase on the residual strength, stiffness and ductility of reinforced concrete stub columns which were heated and cooled down to room temperature under sustained axial load. Reinforced concrete stub columns were axially loaded and heated to designed temperatures in a specially built electrical furnace. After the specimens cooled down to ambient temperature with the axial loads kept constant, the stub columns were loaded to failure. The sustained preload led to significant residual deformations of reinforced concrete stub columns during the cooling phase. The test results showed that the mechanical behaviour of the fire-damaged reinforced concrete stub columns with preload was remarkably different from those without preload. The sustained axial loads resulted in obviously increased strength and stiffness during the loading phase, but reduced stiffness and deteriorated ductility in the unloading phase. Based on the test results, it is recommended that the effects of sustained axial loads during the fire and cooling phase should be taken into consideration in assessing the fire-damaged reinforced concrete columns.     

分级等荷循环受压下橡胶水泥砂浆的疲劳损伤演化

为探究橡胶水泥基材料的疲劳及损伤演化特性,以橡胶水泥砂浆为研究对象,对其分别进行10、20、30 kN荷载等级下的10次(低次/限次)等荷循环加-卸载试验,并对试件产生的加载应变、加载应变差、累积残余应变、累积残余应变差、不闭合度、累积残余应变损伤(塑性损伤),以及加载和卸载变形模量进行分析.结果 表明:试件的加载应变和累积残余应变均随着循环荷载等级的增大而增大;试件的加载应变差和累积残余应变差随着循环次数的增加以互相交错波动的形式逐渐减小至0附近;随着循环次数的增加,试件的不闭合度减小,塑性损伤增大,且两者均随循环荷载等级增大而增大;试件的加载和卸载变形模量随着循环次数的增加以分段线性波动的形式增大,也随着循环荷载等级的增大而增大.同时建立了基于临界塑性损伤假定条件下的塑性损伤模型和刚度变化模型,对试件在高次/不限次等荷循环加-卸载过程中的疲劳塑性损伤和刚度演化特征进行了初步预测和表征.     

Strain Energy-Based Elasto-Viscoplastic Constitutive Modelling of Sand for Numerical Simulation

It is shown that the use of visco-plastic shear or volumetric strain as the stress history-independent hardening parameter in an elasto-viscoplastic model for sand may result in inaccurate numerical simulations of geotechnical boundary value problems. A new elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model for sand is proposed, formulated based on a stress path-independent irreversible (or visco-plastic) strain energy-based hardening function. The function was derived based on results from drained plane strain compression (PSC) tests on saturated dense Toyoura sand along a wide variety of stress path. The model is coupled with an existing isotropically work-hardening and -softening, non-associated, elasto-plastic model for sand. The constitutive model takes into account the effects of loading rate due to viscous properties on the stress-strain behaviour as well as those of pressure level, inherent anisotropy and void ratio and work softening associated with strain localization into a shear band. It is shown that the proposed model can much better simulate the effects of stress history on the deformation characteristics of sand than many previous models. The FEM code incorporating the model is validated by simulating physical PSC tests and bearing capacity model tests of a strip footing on sand performed by previous studies.