South African hydrogen infrastructure (HySA infrastructure) for fuel cells and energy storage: Overview of a projects portfolio

The paper provides brief introduction to the National South African Program, branded HySA (Hydrogen South Africa) as well as discusses potential business cases for deployment of hydrogen and fuel cell technology in South Africa. This paper also describes some key activities in the area of hydrogen production and storage within HySA Infrastructure Center of Competence in South Africa. The content of this paper is based on the presentation given during the recent WHEC 2016 Congress in Zaragoza, Spain. More specifically, the discussion of activities at HySA Infrastructure Center of Competence in the paper includes hydrogen production and storage.     

U.S. DOE fossil energy fuel cells program

The U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Office of Fossil Energy's (FE) National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), in partnership with private industry, educational institutions and national laboratories, is leading the development and demonstration of high efficiency, high temperature solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and fuel cell turbine (FCT) hybrid power generation systems for stationary markets including auxiliary power units (APUs), distributed generation (DG) and large, coal-based central power plants. The DOE FE fuel cells program has three aspects: the Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA), Fuel Cell Coal Based Systems for central power, and the High Temperature Electrochemistry Center (HiTEC). The SECA goal is to decrease SOFC system cost to US$ 400 per kilowatt (kW) by 2010 for stationary markets. DOE FE is ultimately concerned with coal-based central power plants such as FutureGen. The goal is to aggregate SECA-type fuel cells into larger systems and to produce a very high efficiency megawatt-class FCT hybrid for testing at FutureGen. The low-cost, US$ 400 kW⁻¹ SECA FCT hybrid is a key component to achieving 60% efficiency by 2020. Advanced aspects of solid oxide technology are part of HiTEC R&D. Technical progress and advances are discussed for all three program aspects.     

Hydrogen energy systems for underwater applications

The most critical development in conventional underwater applications in recent years is to use hydrogen energy systems, including Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) systems. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell-powered AIP systems increase interest worldwide. They offer many advantages such as longer endurance time without going to the surface for 2–3 weeks or without snorkeling with an average speed, perfectly silent operation, environmentally friendly process, high efficiency, and low thermal dissipation underwater. PEM fuel cells require a continuous source of hydrogen and oxygen as reactants to sustain a chemical reaction to produce electrical energy. Hydrogen storage is the critical challenge regarding the quality of supplied hydrogen, system weight, and volume. This paper reviewed hydrogen/oxygen storage preferences coupled with PEM Fuel Cell applications in the literature for unmanned underwater vehicles. Since underwater vehicles have different volume and weight requirements, no single hydrogen storage technique is the best for all underwater applications.     

A review of high-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell (HT-PEMFC) system

This paper provides information encompassing the recent discovery of the High Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (HT-PEMFC) focusing on systems requirement. To have a reliable power production and higher durability level, a proper system must be applied in both normal and especially in transient operations. To date many issues of HT-PEMFC especially in durability and performance still unsolved. This article is written to provide clear information about the research undergo and must be the focus in order to produce an efficient performance. Information about the advantages towards Low Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (LT-PEMFC), the main components, and the mode of operation also discussed. In-depth research needs to be conducted into the innovative design and development of HT-PEMFC components and its system since these are the key factors for optimum performance.     

Design of experiment to predict the time between hydrogen purges for an air-breathing PEM fuel cell in dead-end mode in a closed environment

Fuel cells are promising technologies for zero-emission energy conversion. They are used in several applications such as power plants, cars and even submarines. Hydrogen supply is crucial for such systems and using Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell in dead-end mode is a solution to save hydrogen. Since water and impurities accumulate inside the stack, purging is necessary. However, the importance of operating parameters is not well known for fuel cells working in closed environments. A Design of Experiment approach, studying time between two purges and cell performance, was conducted on an air-breathing stack in a closed environment. The most influential parameters on the time between two purges are the relative humidity and the current load. Convection in the closed environment can decrease the stability of the fuel cell. A linear model with interactions between these last three parameters was found to accurately describe the studied responses.     

Bond graph modeling approach development for fuel cell PEMFC systems

This paper addresses the problem of bond graph methodology as a graphical approach for modeling fuel cell systems. The system consists of a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) stack, an interleaved boost converter, battery pack connected via a buck converter.     

Experimental study of hydrogen releases in the passenger compartment of a Piaggio Porter

There are currently projects and demonstration programs aiming at introducing Hydrogen powered Fuel Cell (HFC) vehicles into the market. Regione Toscana has been cofounder of the project “H2 Filiera Idrogeno”, whose goal is to achieve a clean and sustainable mobility through HFC vehicle studies covering their production, storage and use. Among the goals of the project was the substitution of the electric propulsion system with a hydrogen fuel cells propulsion system. This work presents a brief overview of the necessary modifications of the electric propulsion version of a Piaggio Porter to host a H₂ fuel cell and experimental studies of realistic H₂ releases from the vehicle. The scenarios covered H₂ unintended releases underneath the vehicle when at rest and focused on three types of releases, diffusive, major and minor, that might reach the interior of the vehicle and potentially pose a direct risk to the passengers.     

Modeling and off-design performance of a 1 kWe HT-PEMFC (high temperature-proton exchange membrane fuel cell)-based residential micro-CHP (combined-heat-and-power) system for Danish single-family households

A novel proposal for the modeling and operation of a micro-CHP (combined-heat-and-power) residential system based on HT-PEMFC (High Temperature-Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell) technology is described and analyzed to investigate its commercialization prospects. An HT-PEMFC operates at elevated temperatures, as compared to Nafion-based PEMFCs and therefore can be a significant candidate for cogeneration residential systems. The proposed system can provide electric power, hot water, and space heating for a typical Danish single-family household. A complete fuel processing subsystem, with all necessary BOP (balance-of-plant) components, is modeled and coupled to the fuel cell stack subsystem. The micro-CHP system is simulated in LabVIEW™ environment to provide the ability of Data Acquisition of actual components and thereby more realistic design in the future. A part-load study has been conducted to indicate performance characteristics at off-design conditions. The system is sized to provide realistic dimensioning of the actual system.     

Thermal integration of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell with recuperative organic rankine cycle

The increased usage of fossil fuels in today's world is leading to an energy crisis and is having a catastrophic impact on our surroundings. There is an immediate need for the development of new, clean and renewable sources of energy especially to power the fuel driven vehicles to decrease the level of carbon footprint around the world. Fuel cells continue to produce power by undergoing a chemical process unlike conventional combustion technology to convert hydrogen-rich fuel into electricity as long as a fuel source is provided and need not be periodically recharged like batteries. The individual fuel cells can be coupled or compiled together to form stacks that can be combined into larger systems and can be scaled based on the requirement. Fuel cell systems have numerous applications from combustion engine replacements for electric vehicles and portable systems for recharging batteries of several devices to large-scale, multi-megawatt installations providing electricity directly to the utility grid. They vary greatly in their size and power output produced. In the present study, thermal integration of Polymer Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) with Recuperative Organic Rankine Cycle (RORC) is analyzed. The PEMFC has a higher efficiency when compared to conventional energy conversion devices ranging between 40 and 60% and can also be maximized by using regeneration techniques. High temperature PEMFCs also release heat at a useful temperature of 423 K which can further be utilized to extract useful work to improve the overall efficiency of the fuel cell. A further study and analysis of the various processes of thermal regeneration techniques to improve the efficiency of a fuel cell is carried out.     

Hydrogen recovery,cleaning, compression,storage, dispensing,distribution system and End-Uses on the university campus from combined heat,hydrogen and power system

To address the problem of fossil fuel usage at the Missouri University of Science and Technology campus, using of alternative fuels and renewable energy sources can lower energy consumption and hydrogen use. Biogas, produced by anaerobic digestion of wastewater, organic waste, agricultural waste, industrial waste, and animal by-products is a potential source of renewable energy. In this work, we have discussed the design of combined heat, hydrogen and power (CHHP) system for the campus using local resources. An energy flow and resource availability study is hydrogen recovery, cleaning and energy End-Uses on the university campus from CHHP system. Following the resource assessment study, our team selects Fuel Cell Energy direct fuel cell (DFC) 1500TM unit as a molten carbonate fuel cell. The CHHP system provides the hydrogen for transportation, back-up power and other needs. The research presented in this paper was performed as part of the 2012 Hydrogen Student Design Contest. In conclusion, the CHHP system will be able to reduce fossil fuel usage, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and hydrogen generated is used to power different applications on the university campus.     

The US Army Foreign Comparative Test fuel cell program

The US Army RDECOM initiated a Foreign Comparative Test (FCT) Program to acquire lightweight, high-energy dense fuel cell systems from across the globe for evaluation as portable power sources in military applications. Five foreign companies, including NovArs, Smart Fuel Cell, Intelligent Energy, Ballard Power Systems, and Hydrogenics, Inc., were awarded competitive contracts under the RDECOM effort. This paper will report on the status of the program as well as the experimental results obtained from one of the units.The US Army has interests in evaluating and deploying a variety of fuel cell systems, where these systems show added value when compared to current power sources in use. For low-power applications, fuel cells utilizing high-energy dense fuels offer significant weight savings over current battery technologies. This helps reduce the load a solider must carry for longer missions. For high-power applications, the low operating signatures (acoustic and thermal) of fuel cell systems make them ideal power generators in stealth operations.Recent testing has been completed on the Smart Fuel Cell A25 system that was procured through the FCT program. The “A-25” is a direct methanol fuel cell hybrid and was evaluated as a potential candidate for soldier and sensor power applications.     

Development,manufacture and validation of an open cathode LT-PEMFC stack at HySA systems

This work presents open cathode low temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell stack development and validation process project performed at HySA Systems as a part of a long-term programme funded by Department of Science and Innovation in South Africa. A detailed explanation of the stack design, manufacturing, assembly and validation is given as well as detailed analysis of results is presented. Prototype stack has an electrode active area of 50 cm², bipolar plates made of graphite composite material (Eisenhuth) and membrane electrode assemblies manufactured in South Africa - HyPlat (Pty) Ltd. A short 10-cell stack is validated using FuelCon Evaluator stack test station and custom designed stack control system integrated with complete balance of plant components. The stack maximum current and power densities are 1.2 Acm⁻² at 0.5 V and 0.6 Wcm⁻², respectively. Performed current hold (300 h) and open circuit voltage (60 h) durability tests resulted in degradation rates of 0.64 mVh⁻¹ and 3.83 mVh⁻¹, respectively.     

The characteristics of regenerative energy for PEMFC hybrid system with additional generator

This study focuses on the use of the Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) hybrid system, which consists of a generator, a supercapacitor, and a battery, to obtain regenerative energy. The fuel cell is a Nexa™ Power Module of Ballard Power Systems Inc., and the battery is a Ni-MH battery of Global Battery Co., Ltd. The supercapacitor, which features an excellent power density and capacity of 30 V and 100F, can minimize its power consumption via a cell balancing circuit. This study aimed to evaluate the characteristics of regenerative energy and suggest solutions to increase regenerative energy using a vehicle simulation.     

Fuel cell techno-personal milestones 1984–2006

This paper is based on my award acceptance talk on the occasion of receiving the Grove Medal for Fuel Cell Science and Technology, at the 2006 Grove meeting in Torino, Italy. I chose to name the talk: “Fuel Cell Techno-Personal Milestones 1984–2006”, trying to reflect on important milestones in the history of the science and technology of hydrogen/air and methanol/air polymer electrolyte fuel cells, in which I was fortunate to be involved for over 20 years.     

Modeling and experimental validation of a PEM fuel cell in steady and transient regimes using PSCAD/EMTDC software

This paper presents the modeling of a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC for steady and transient regimes applying equivalent electrical circuits. The model considers the activation, concentration and ohmic losses, dissipated as heat, of a PEMFC fuel cell, as well its thermodynamic behavior. In addition, this paper reviews the key concepts related to fuel cells, their operating mode and applications. Simulations are carried out under different load conditions to analyze the PEMFC model response, as well as series and parallel associations to increase the power supply. The results obtained from the model simulations are compared to experimental data retrieved from the literature.     

Exergy analysis of PEM fuel cells for marine applications

Fuel cells have a promising potential use in stationary and mobile power generation systems, as well as in automotive, aerospace or marine industries. At present, the main field of marine applications of fuel cells is submarines. Hydrogen/oxygen polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are commonly used in this field. Storage of oxygen in liquid form is the optimal solution. Hydrogen can be stored in carbon-nanofibres or metallic hydrides, for example, or in liquid fuels, as alcohols, with further generation of the hydrogen required on-board. The objective of this study is to perform an exergetic analysis of two possibilities of using PEM fuel cells on surface ships and submarines: hydrogen/oxygen PEM fuel cells fed with hydrogen generated by reforming of methanol, and Direct Methanol Fuel Cells directly fed with liquid methanol. To do this, exergy losses and exergetic efficiencies are calculated for both configurations at selected optimal operation points.     

A novel approach for treatment of CO2 from fossil fired power plants. Part B: The energy suitability of integrated tri-reforming power plants (ITRPPs) for methanol production

In Part A of this two-paper work, a novel approach for treatment of CO₂ from fossil fired power plants was studied. This approach consists of flue gases utilization as co-reactants in a catalytic process, the tri-reforming process, to generate a synthesis gas suitable in chemical industries for production of chemicals (methanol, DME, ammonia and urea, etc.). In particular, the further conversion of syngas to a transportation fuel, such as methanol, is an attractive solution to introduce near zero-emission technologies (i.e. fuel cells) in vehicular applications. In fact, the methanol can be used in DMFC (Direct Methanol Fuel Cell) or as fuel for on-board reforming to produce hydrogen for PEMFC (Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell).     

Robust control of four-phase interleaved boost converter by considering the performance of PEM fuel cell current

Hydrogen associated with Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) as the prime candidate energy is becoming attention in transportation. However, the cost and the service lifespan are the main reasons that limit PEMFC wide application. In this paper, the super-twisting sliding mode (STSM) controller is designed for a four-phase interleaved boost converter (IBC) coupled with a PEMFC. The proposed controller can enhance the robustness of the output voltage while reducing the PEMFC current overshoot as much as possible for protection under a certain limitation of the PEMFC current ripple. The stability of the proposed controller is proved by the Lyapunov theorem. A typical proportional-integral (PI) controller based on ac small-signal model is designed for further comparison and discussion. The effectiveness of the STSM controller is further evaluated through experimental results obtained with a 1 kW fuel cell system based on a real-time hardware-in-the-loop system.     

甲醇质子交换膜燃料电池的水和热管理

甲醇质了换燃料电是未来最有希望获得工程应用的燃料电池，文章简述了燃料电的发电原理及其分类。对多孔电极，直接甲醇质子交换膜燃料电及甲醇改质质子交换膜燃料电作了分析和讨论，指出了对质子交换膜燃料电池系统进行水管理和热管理的重要性和必要性。     

New magnetic field analyzer device dedicated for polymer electrolyte fuel cells noninvasive diagnostic

Inside the Fuel Cell, the magnetic field distribution can indicate normal or abnormal operation and therefore provides an effective diagnosis approach. The magnetotomography is the only noninvasive current density mapping method and is based on the measurement of the external magnetic field of the fuel cell stack. The present work addresses the development of a new magnetic field analyzer device devoted to assess the current density distribution inside the Fuel Cell, within the surrounding external magnetic field. The proposed magnetic field analyzer associates magnetic sensors with a ferromagnetic circuit, which is essentially different in comparison with other methodologies proposed until now. Providing a higher magnetic field variation at the level of magnetic sensors, this new approach enables a more accurate analysis of the current distribution inside the Fuel Cell. This study considers the Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell case.