Towards a Conceptual Sustainable Packaging Development Model: A Corrugated Box Case Study

Corrugated package designers are focused on balancing the need for product protection, material use efficiency and the packaging material's impact on the environment in the supply chain. The purpose of this paper is to develop a conceptual sustainable packaging model that integrates the variables of technical design, supply chain systems and environmental factors and then use the model to identify to improve upon corrugated container design. A model was developed, from the extant literature, and a case study was performed on a corrugated container. This is believed to be a unique integrated model of most relevant agents related to the design and implementation of a corrugated box through a supply chain from design to potential post‐consumer reuse. From this study, we found opportunities to improve the environmental design of the corrugated container through four ex ante design stages, and two ex post facto supply chain stages. Further, research can evaluate and refine this model via a ‘live supply chain’ for use in guiding corrugated box material selection design and reuse/recycling. Integration of the design criterion for a unit load in the supply chain creates opportunity to observe the packaging system holistically. Waste in the manufacturing process and CO₂ emissions are traced along the material flow until the end of its useful life to provide an overall picture of the packaging system. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Life cycle environmental performance and improvement of a yogurt product delivery system

A life cycle assessment was conducted to evaluate the environmental performance of the yogurt product delivery system used by Stonyfield Farm. A life cycle model was developed which included material production, manufacturing and disposition for primary and secondary packaging, as well as the related transportation links between these stages and filling, retail and the point of consumption. Product delivery systems (PDS) that utilized 4, 6, 8 and 32 oz polypropylene (PP) cups and 2 oz linear low‐density polyethylene (LLDPE) tubes were analysed. Ten strategies for improving the environmental performance of these systems were proposed and their impacts on the total life cycle burden were analysed. The life cycle energy consumption for the 2, 4, 6, 8 and 32 oz containers was 4050, 4670, 5230, 4390 and 3620 MJ/1000 lb yogurt delivered to market, respectively. Material production of the primary packaging accounted for 58% of the life cycle energy, while Distribution 3 (yogurt delivery to distributors/retailers) alone accounted for one‐third of the life cycle total energy. The life cycle solid waste profile showed that as the container size decreased, the solid waste burden increased, from 27.3 kg (32 oz) to 42.8 kg (6 oz) per 1000 lb yogurt delivered to market. This relationship was even more pronounced for the 4 oz (47.5 kg) and 2 oz (56.2 kg) product delivery systems. The greatest potential improvements in the environmental performance of the PDS are achievable through redesigning the primary packaging and using alternative manufacturing techniques for the yogurt cups. Shifting from injection moulding to thermoforming of 32 oz container reduces the life cycle energy and solid waste by 18.6% and 19.5%, respectively, primarily due to light‐weighting. Elimination of lids for 6 oz and 8 oz containers provided similar benefits. Consumers purchasing yogurt in 32 oz instead of 6 oz containers can save 14.5% of the life cycle energy and decrease solid waste by 27.2%. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Choice of Life Cycle Assessment Software Can Impact Packaging System Decisions

A number of software packages are available that are designed to facilitate making environmental comparisons between different packaging options, to facilitate ‘green’ packaging design and assessment of the environmental aspect of sustainability. Some of these (e.g. SimaPro and GaBi) are full‐fledged ISO 14040/14044‐compliant programs for life cycle assessment (LCA). Others are more limited, but are designed to be much simpler to use (e.g. COMPASS and Package Modeling). A systematic comparison of the evaluation of several packaging systems using COMPASS, SimaPro, GaBi, and Package Modeling found significant discrepancies in LCA results from different software systems. Availability of common impact categories among the software limited comparisons to four categories: greenhouse gas emissions, fossil fuel/non‐renewable energy, eutrophication, and water depletion. Given a common set of basic packaging containers as input, results from the LCA software systems being studied disagreed on which container had the greatest environmental impact, and in some cases results were more than an order of magnitude different between software. Discrepancies in results occurred in all four impact categories, and all four software systems disagreed with each other at multiple points in the comparisons. If there is to be increasing use of LCA analysis in guiding packaging design, this issue must be fully understood and resolved. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Interconnected logistic networks and protocols: simulation-based efficiency assessment

Logistic networks intensely use means of transportation and storage facilities to deliver goods. However, these logistic networks are still poorly interconnected and this fragmentation is responsible for a lack of consolidation and thus efficiency. To cope with the seeming contradiction of just-in-time deliveries and challenging emissions targets, a major improvement in supply networks is sought here. This new organisation is based on the universal interconnection of logistics services, namely a Physical Internet where goods travel in modular containers for the sake of interconnection in open networks. If from a logical point of view, merging container flows should improve efficiency, no demonstration of its potential has been carried out prior to the here reported research. To reach this potentiality assessment goal, we model the asynchronous shipment and creation of containers within an interconnected network of services, find the best path routing for each container and minimise the use of transportations means. To carry out the demonstration and assess the associated stakes, we use a set of actual flows from the fast-moving consumer goods sector in France. Various transportation protocols and scenarios are tested, revealing encouraging results for efficiency indicators such as CO₂ emissions, cost, lead time, delivery travel time, and so forth. As this is a first work in the field of flows transportation, the simulation model and experiment exposes many further research avenues.     

An evaluation of the ability of RFID tags to withstand distribution of fresh produce in the RPC pooling system

This study focused on the ability of radio frequency identification (RFID) tags applied on reusable plastic containers (RPCs) to withstand repeated abuse due to physical distribution and storage environment related hazards. It also studied the effect of the chemical cleaning environments that RPCs are commonly exposed to in the pooling/rental systems commonly used to distribute fresh produce. RPCs are being successfully deployed in the US, Europe and Asia to ship fresh produce from growers to retailers. The increasing demand for traceability and tracking of fresh produce from ‘farm to fork’ requires these containers to be monitored and identified in the food supply chain, and RFID technology provides one of the solutions. This study compared eight commercially available RFID tags mounted on RPCs for use in fresh produce distribution and subjected them to repeated physical and climatic cycles representing the distribution and cleaning environments, and their effective ‘read’ capabilities were tested. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sustainable Packaging Development for Fresh Food Supply Chains

The fresh food industry is increasingly more interested in developing efficient and innovative solutions to guarantee quality and distribution sustainability; one of the main factors that influences such crucial aspects is packaging. This paper aims to perform a critical analysis of two existing packaging solutions, i.e. corrugated fibreboard boxes and re‐usable plastic containers, from both the economic and the environmental perspective, to highlight the main weaknesses. It then proposes two alternative packaging solutions. The analysis features different economic assessments and models with different environmental impacts, taking into account the characteristics of packaging solutions predominantly within two supply chain types: the traditional food supply chain and the short food supply chain. The economic and environmental models are applied to understand the limitations of existing packaging solutions, to develop two alternative solutions and finally to perform an overall analysis of all fresh food containers, allowing the definition of the most suitable container for each of the proposed supply chain scenarios, from both an economic and environmental perspective. The innovative aspect of the research lies in the simultaneous evaluation of economic and environmental factors and the introduction of two new packaging solutions, making it of interest to researchers and fresh food industry professionals alike.     

Aerobic in-vessel composting versus bioreactor landfilling using life cycle inventory models

Potential environmental impacts associated with aerobic in-vessel composting and bioreactor landfilling were assessed using life cycle inventory (LCI) tool. LCI models for solid waste management (SWM) were also developed and used to compare environmental burdens of alternative SWM scenarios. Results from the LCI models showed that the estimated energy recovery from bioreactor landfilling was about 9.6 megajoules (MJ) per kilogram (kg) of waste. Air emissions from in-vessel composting contributed to a global warming potential (GWP) of 0.86 kg of CO₂-equivalent per kg of waste, compared to 1.54 kg of CO₂-equivalent from bioreactor landfill. Waterborne emissions contributing to aquatic toxicity is less coming from in-vessel composting than from bioreactor landfilling. However, emissions to air and water that contribute to human toxicity are greater for the composting option than for the landfill option. Full costs for in-vessel composting is about 6 times greater than for the landfilling alternative. Integration of individually collected commingled recyclables, yard wastes, and residual wastes with windrow composting and bioreactor landfilling produces airborne and waterborne emissions with the least environmental effects among the alternatives considered. It also yields greater energy savings due to the conversion of the landfill gas (LFG) to electrical energy than the option that diverts yard waste, food waste and soiled paper for aerobic in-vessel composting. However, this scenario costs 68% more than that where the commingled collection of wastes is integrated with in-vessel composting and conventional landfilling, owing to increased collection costs.     

Basic considerations on the calculation of the trippage number for returnable containers

The trippage number of returnable containers has a central position in economic, calculations and in comparing the environmental impacts of disposable and returnable container systems. Extremely varying trippage numbers are frequently reported for the same type of container, usually without any reference to the method of calculation. Only a few authors have published basic considerations on the calculation of the trippage number. Different methods of calculation have been recommended and different definitions of what should be understood by the ‘trippage number’ have been given. To investigate what is really achieved by these kinds of calculation, a model system, performing all the functions of a returnable container system in practice, for system analysis by computer simulation was established. By means of this model system it was found that in the lifetime of a container population one can differentiate between three kinds of populations, each one with an individual mean trippage number:

• (i) the average trippage number of all containers put into circulation
• (ii) the average trippage number of all lost containers
• (iii) the average trippage number of all existing containers, representing the total stock of circulating containers

Emanating from these basic considerations, it was found that the actual average trippage number of all containers put into circulation after ‘x’ fillings (U_x) can be calculated exactly by the quotientof the sum of all filled containers (ΣN) and the sum of all containers put into circulation (ΣE) since the first day of use of a container type according to the following expression It must be stated that correct results can only be achieved by taking into account all containers filled or put into circulation from the very first day of use. Despite this drawback, this kind of calculation has the advantage of being based on figures that are available and easily retraceable for almost all filling-plants. After the first circulation, the average trippage number (U_x) is equal to 1.0, rising with each circulation because of its tendency to approximate to a constant final value after an infinite number of fillings (U_x→∞), which can be calculated by the quotient of the sum of all filled containers (ΣN) and the sum of all lost containers (ΣA) since the first day of use of a container type, represented by the inverse value of the proportion of lost containers (a) or its complement, the share of refillable containers (r), according to This (theoretical) final value is approximated by each partial population (the population of all input new containers, of all lost and all existing containers) but with a different velocity, dependent on the parameters a=1?r (the loss rate) and r_z =1?b (the rate of containers returning to the filling-plant from the total stock of existing containers). The number of circulations needed to approach this final value rises with a decreasing share of lost containers (a) and with a decreasing share of containers returning to the filling plant (r_z) from the total container stock. The calculation by the inverse value of the share of lost containers (l/a ) is therefore not relevant to the calculation of the actual average trippage number of any partial population (number of new containers put into circulation, lost containers or stock of all existing containers). To receive correct results, also for this calculation, it is necessary to take into account all containers filled or lost from the very first day of use. This may be troublesome with a container type used by many filling-plants and with traditional old containers, where the necessary figures are no longer available. A further drawback of this kind of calculation is that the number of lost containers cannot be calculated exactly, because of the uncertainty of whether all containers, for which the plant holds the deposit, exist or not. Therefore the share of lost containers is mostly set too low, which results in the calculation of too high a trippage number.     

老龄患者药品包装设计

目的研究便于老年人开启和使用的药品包装容器造型与结构设计。方法通过对比老龄患者在使用市面上药品包装容器的不便,改进药品包装的视觉要素和容器结构,使用Auto CAD软件和Solidworks软件进行药品包装容器造型与结构的设计和生产工艺设计。结论老龄患者药品包装要从容易开启,方便取药和容易生产的角度进行设计,切实为老龄患者设计出人性化药品包装。设计出一款安全卫生、外形美观、实用性强、结构设计合理的药品包装容器,方便药品定剂量取出。在生产工艺上采用注塑成型工艺进行局部成型,然后再进行装配的方法进行生产。     

航材包装单元多隔层集装箱装载优化研究

目的 通过对装载模型开展研究,提高航材包装单元在组合式多隔层集装箱中的装载率,为部队进行集装箱装载工作提供技术方法。方法 依据待装载航材包装单元和集装箱尺寸,分析集装箱内部的分割方案,考虑装载容积、载质量、底面积和装载重心等约束条件,综合空间利用率和载质量为目标函数,建立数学模型,并利用遗传算法对每种分割方案进行优化计算,确定最佳的分割与装载方案。结果 以26个航材包装单元待装入B9型组合式集装箱为例,最优的装载方案是将集装箱内部分割成3层,16个航材包装单元被装入,空间利用率达到86.25%,装载后集装箱的稳定性良好。结论 该模型能有效优化航材包装单元的装载方案,提升组合式集装箱的装载效率,对加快军用物资的输送具有重要意义。     

Measurement and Analysis of Vibration Levels in Two and Three Wheel Delivery Vehicles in Southeast Asia

Different types of small vehicles such as two‐wheel and three‐wheel motorcycles are commonly used for domestic delivery in many countries in Asia, particularly in Southeast (SE) Asia. These types of vehicles are mostly used for delivery of packages in the last leg of the supply chain. This study was initiated at the Technical Council meeting of International Safe Transit Association to understand the vibration levels that exist in delivering packages in SE Asia for the ‘last leg’. The study measured the vibration levels that are experienced by packages in Thailand and Indonesia. The delivery process in these countries uses two‐wheel and three‐wheel light vehicles to deliver printers and small packages. However, this portion of data and testing has often been overlooked by packaging test standards used in North America and Europe to design and test packages during the development process. The ‘last leg’ delivery method discussed has generally been considered the fast, convenient and flexible way of product delivery. Data recorders were mounted on the vehicle floor to measure acceleration levels during delivery in commonly used routes in the major cities in these two countries. Measured data in this research show that the vibration levels in these ‘last leg’ delivery routes are actually lower than those measured in truck and container shipment across road and rail transportation in North America that has been previously studied by the authors. Vibration levels in the two‐wheel vehicles with rear trunk containers were higher than those in the three‐wheel vehicles. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Monitoring the Condition of Non‐linear Packaging Materials Subject to Varying Excitation Levels Using a Reverse Multiple Input/Single Output Based Approach

During transportation, protective packaging is subjected to random dynamic compressive loads that arise from random vibrations generated by the vehicle. The ability of the protective packaging to withstand these dynamic compressive loads depends on the environmental vibration levels, the nominal stresses and the material's characteristics. Previous research has shown that cumulative damage, in the packaging system under random dynamic compression, will result in a change in the overall stiffness of the system. This change is manifested as a shift in the system's fundamental resonant frequency. Natural frequency estimates are often extracted using a least squares regression curve fit applied to an estimate of the system's frequency response function. Frequency response function estimates are generally obtained using the Fourier transform with a single input/single output (SISO). This approach is suitable for many applications; however, it is not well suited to non‐linear systems subjected to non‐stationary excitation where the vibration level (overall root‐mean‐square value) can vary. This paper investigates the use of an optimised reverse multiple input/single output algorithm for reliably tracking variations in the condition of packaging elements subjected to excitation with varying magnitude (root‐mean‐square). Results are presented from the analysis of physical experiments performed on expanded polystyrene cushions as well as empty corrugated paperboard containers. The experiments performed using the polystyrene samples were designed to limit natural variation in the system's natural frequency; whereas the paperboard samples were allowed to naturally damage under dynamic loading. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Energie- und CO2-Bilanzen von Solarkollektoranlagen

Energy systems based on solar collectors or other renewable energy sources are normally regarded as CO₂ zero-emission systems because nearly no fossil fuels are used to operate the systems. But the complete evaluation of an energy system concerning its CO₂ reduction potential must not be restricted to the emissions during the operation of the system. The cumulative energy demand and the cumulative CO₂ emissions during the life cycle have to be considered. In case of a solar collector system, in particular the production-determined emissions and emissions due to the requirement of auxiliary electric power for the collector pump are important. An energy analysis is this kind was performed for solar domestic hot water systems. It is shown that the consideration of the life cycle emissions reduces significantly the CO₂ reduction potential of solar collector systems whereby the design of the system has a major influence.     

Quality changes of treated fresh‐cut tropical fruits in rigid modified atmosphere packaging containers

There has been increasing demand for various fresh‐cut tropical fruits. However, their short shelf‐life has limited the market increase of this product. Quality changes (firmness, colour, total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA), sensory quality and microbial safety) of fresh‐cut mangoes, pineapples, melons and mixes of these fruits were evaluated. Chemical treatments to reduce browning, firmness loss and decay of fresh‐cut tropical fruits were investigated. The most effective agents for fresh‐cut mangoes, pineapples and melons were 0.1m ascorbic acid, 0.2m ascorbic acid and 0.2m ascorbic acid + 0.2m calcium chloride, respectively. Fresh‐cut tropical fruits were packaged in various rigid containers (PET, OPS and OPLA). Gas composition in the package headspace and time to reach steady‐state condition varied among fresh‐cut packaging systems and affected their quality and shelf‐life. The effects of package permeability of O₂ and CO₂ on quality and shelf‐life of the fresh‐cut products are discussed. Extended shelf‐life was observed in fresh‐cut mangoes, pineapples and mixes packaged in PET due to reduced O₂ and elevated CO₂ atmosphere. A modified atmosphere of 6% O₂ and 14% CO₂ achieved in PET extended the shelf‐life of fresh‐cut pineapples from 6 to 13 days. Accumulation of CO₂ may impart an off‐odour of fresh‐cut fruits. The results suggested that the shelf‐life of fresh‐cut fruits could be extended by using proper rigid containers. Suitable mixes to create optimal equilibrium modified atmosphere had a potential to extend shelf‐life of short shelf‐life fresh‐cut tropical fruits. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

不同包装容器对劲酒品质的影响

目的 研究包装容器对酒体品质的影响因素,为劲酒包装容器的选择提供科学的数据支撑。方法 采用光学透过率测试仪对不同包装容器的透光率进行了测定,并对贮存2年的劲酒的总黄酮含量、总皂苷含量、色率、淫羊藿苷含量、口感进行分析,数据分析的方法为随机区组设计资料的方差分析。结果 无色玻璃瓶、PET瓶透光率高达90%以上,深色瓶、涂漆瓶、陶瓷瓶、不锈钢瓶透光率均极小。总体来说高硼硅玻璃瓶和PET瓶储存的劲酒均有不同程度的颜色变浅,总黄酮、总皂苷含量降低,口感变差,其他容器储存的酒体之间没有明显差异,且它的总体品质要高于高硼硅玻璃瓶和PET瓶储存酒体的总体品质。结论 包装容器的透光性会对劲酒的品质产生影响,避光包装容器可能更适合劲酒的储存,避光容器的材质和形状对劲酒品质基本没有影响;对于透光性容器,容器形状可能影响劲酒品质,相较于圆柱型的包装容器,扁平型的可能更能保护劲酒品质。     

Vibration and acceleration levels of multimodal container shipping physical environment

In global supply chains, multimodal transportation plays a dominant role in worldwide shipping. The rail, truck, and vessel combination is the most commonly used mode for non‐time sensitive shipments between continents. This study focused on measuring the transportation environment effects (vibration and acceleration levels) in 40‐foot ISO container shipments using multiple modes of transport, originating in Hungary and destined for Mexico, India, and China over several weeks. The study also measured multimodal shipping routes without vessel transportation to China over Trans‐Siberian and Trans‐Manchurian railway lines. The transshipments and handling events in container hubs and terminals were separately analyzed. The results show the comparison of vibration intensity (in PSD) of different route conditions between various continents, and the possibility of acceleration levels during transshipments and handling events. The measured data show that extreme acceleration levels in vertical direction (9.37 G) occur while containers are handled in a seaport, and in lateral (4.45 G) and longitudinal (5.55 G) directions while they are transshipped by truck to rail container terminals. The rail vibration levels in Russia and China showed a lower intensity in the frequency range of 1 to 15 Hz, and higher between 15 and 200 Hz than in Europe; the lowest vibration levels occurred when the containers traveled on the sea, and truck vibration levels were very similar to previous research and ISTA protocols.     

Selection of Packaging Systems in Supply Chains from a Sustainability Perspective: The Case of Volvo

The purpose of this article is to develop an evaluation model for the selection of packaging systems in supply chains from a sustainability perspective. A theoretical evaluation model for comparing cost efficiency and the environmental impact of packaging systems in supply chains are developed from literature. The model is tested in a case study of a supply chain involving Volvo Car Corporation and Volvo Logistics Corporation, comparing the use of newly developed, one‐way packaging with the sustainability of returnable packaging. The model compares the environmental and economic impacts of two packaging systems in a specific supply chain. The criteria used in the model are (i) packaging fill rate, (ii) packaging material, (iii) transport, (iv) material handling, (v) waste handling and (vi) administration. In the case study, the one‐way packaging resulted in fewer economic and environmental impacts, thereby indicating the importance for companies to question their packaging systems. The model has been tested on one component in a case study. It provides a comparison of the packaging choices included using comparative, but not absolute, figures for the economic and environmental impacts. Managers can use the model to compare packaging systems for component supply and determine the most sustainable packaging from environmental and economic perspectives. The case study indicated that the returnable packaging system commonly used in the automotive industry is not always preferable in terms of sustainability. The article fulfils the need to evaluate the impact of packaging systems on supply chain sustainability in terms of economic and environmental criteria. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

罐装薯片包装的生命周期评价

对罐装薯片包装进行了生命周期评价,包括从原材料的获取、生产加工,工厂、消费者的运输,到包装容器的使用、二次回收使用,废弃物处理等包装的生命周期环节,对其能量消耗、环境影响等进行了评价。分析结果表明:纸铝塑复合包装的环境负荷主要体现在原材料的获取阶段,集中在燃料能源的消耗,其中纸材料加工的环境负荷要大于塑料与铝;填埋、焚烧、再利用这3种处置方式对环境的影响主要集中在化石燃料的消耗、土地占用和无机物对人体的损害上。因此,在维持现有结构的情况下,实行材料减量化和容器轻量化是提高包装环保适性最直接、有效的途径。     

Life cycle inventory and analysis of re‐usable plastic containers and display‐ready corrugated containers used for packaging fresh fruits and vegetables

Today's demanding distribution challenges require engineers to choose from various types of materials, design and construction methods, to develop containers that can deliver goods with minimal damage. The challenge is even greater when packing and shipping goods which are perishable and sensitive to both physical and climatic changes in environment. In recent years the type of packaging material used to design and construct containers has undergone more scrutiny than ever, due to environmental challenges. This study focuses on two types of containers that have been designed and are being used to pack and ship fresh fruits and vegetables. The study compares the re‐usable plastic containers to single‐use display‐ready paper corrugated trays. Results show that, based on the scope of this study and comparing 10 different produce items, such as apples, carrots, grapes, oranges, onions, tomatoes, strawberries, etc., the re‐usable plastic containers require 39% less total energy, produce 95% less total solid waste and generate 29% less total greenhouse gas emissions. This study focused on the North American market. Major European nations have been using a large number of re‐usable plastic containers for these types of fresh produce for the past three decades. This study was initiated by the Franklin Associates, an independent consulting firm for allowing an in‐depth review of all data and results from a two year study titled: Life Cycle Inventory of Reusable Plastic Containers and Display‐Ready Corrugated Containers Used for Fresh Produce Applications. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

PVC thermoformed containers for food packaging: establishment of a rapid extraction test for overall migration limit compliance testing

In order to demonstrate compliance with the overall migration limit given in amended EC Directive 90/128/EEC, overall migration tests are usually performed on the finished food packaging with food stimulants. For packaging converters, in particular, who thermoform a wide range of containers from an extruded sheet, the cost of testing for compliance can be prohibitive. However, the Directive also allows compliance to be demonstrated by use of a ‘more severe test’. In this study a ‘more severe test’ has been developed for PVC and VC/VA co-polymer materials involving extraction with methanol or a methanol/water mixture and evaporation to dryness. This procedure has been optimised so that it is simple and rapid to perform and gives slightly higher results for the extruded sheet compared to overall migration tests conducted with fatty and aqueous food simulants. Results are presented demonstrating the rapid extraction test to be a ‘more severe test’ and that it could be used by converters in conjunction with good manufacturing practice (GMP) to demonstrate compliance with the overall migration limit in a cost-effective way. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.