The use of edible insect proteins in food: Challenges and issues related to their functional properties

Over the past decade, the potential of edible insects as a novel ingredient in high value-added products has been investigated to find alternatives to conventional protein sources that are expensive, over-exploited and harmful to the environment. This review assesses the state of insects as an alternative protein source from production to consumption. More specifically, this review details the conventional procedures related to the production of insect flours as well as insect-derived ingredients such as protein concentrates and isolates. As a source of alternative protein in food ingredient formulations, the available data on the functionalities of edible insect ingredients is also examined and compared to conventional animal- and plant-based protein sources. Finally, the major challenges facing entomophagy in the mainstream food industry are explored. This review highlights the fact that insect proteins can serve as functional ingredients in food preparation. However, additional comparative studies are required to assess the functionality of various insect proteins compared to conventional proteins, regardless of processing method. To be incorporated into large scale industries, more research is needed to optimize processing methods to obtain the best compromise between cost-effectiveness, functionality, tastiness and sustainability, while ensuring consumer safety.     

Consumer acceptance of insect-based alternative meat products in Western countries

During the past few years, entomophagy has been increasing in significance. As insects are generally high in protein, they are principally considered as meat substitutes. Nevertheless, in Western countries, meat substitute consumption is actually very low, principally due to food neophobia and poor sensory qualities in comparison with meat. In insect particular case, food neophobia is clearly high. To reduce insect food neophobia, previous studies suggest to insert invisible insect in food preparation and/or to associate them with known flavors. In this study, a survey on entomophagy perception and hedonic tests were realized to assess the level of sensory-liking of hybrid insect-based burgers (beef, lentils, mealworms and beef, mealworms and lentils). Participants’ overall liking of the four burgers differed between genders and was influenced by burger appearance and taste. Women clearly preferred beef burger appearance, whereas men preferred the appearance of beef and insect-based burgers. Concerning insect-based burger taste, participants (men and women) rated it intermediately, between that of the beef and lentil burger, with a preference for the mealworm and beef burger. Results also showed that people with previous entomophagy experience was limited but that they gave globally higher ratings to all preparations. In conclusion, insect tasting sessions are important to decrease food neophobia, as they encourage people to “take the first step” and become acquainted with entomophagy. Nevertheless, insect integration into Western food culture will involve a transitional phase with minced or powdered insects incorporated into ready-to-eat preparations, as people are not ready to add insects to their diets in “whole form.”     

Cross-validation of the entomophagy attitude questionnaire (EAQ): A study in China on eaters and non-eaters

Research interest in direct entomophagy (the eating of insects) and indirect entomophagy (the eating of insects-fed animals) has grown exponentially in recent years. The use of insects as food and feed is a potential avenue to meet the growing global food demand, and for enhancing the sustainability of animal diets as well. The Entomophagy Attitude Questionnaire (EAQ) has been recently proposed as a specific measure of attitudes towards direct and indirect entomophagy. First aim of the current study was to cross-validate the EAQ in a non-Western country. An additional aim was to explore the differences between who have previously eaten insects and who have not. Hence, the EAQ was administered to a convenience Chinese sample (N = 395), together with measures of intention to eat insects either directly or indirectly. Confirmatory Factor Analysis showed a satisfactory fit of the EAQ three-factor model. The instrument showed adequate psychometric properties, and evidences of convergent and divergent validity of EAQ’s latent constructs were found. In addition, EAQ was found to predict effectively participants’ intention to engage both in direct and indirect entomophagy. Results thus support the validity of EAQ and the conceptualization underpinning it in a non-Western country. The main difference emerged between eaters and non-eaters regards the role of disgust, which is more predictive of intention for non-eaters, whereas positive attitude (interest) is more predictive for eaters. Hence, different communication strategies are suggested for individuals who already have vs. have not experienced the direct or indirect eating of insects.     

The meat of affliction: Insects and the future of food as seen in Expo 2015

BackgroundInsects are touted as a “food of the future” due to their lower environmental footprint relative to traditional livestock, raising interest in entomophagy as a sustainable diet. As such, they appeared at future-food themed Universal Exposition 2015 in Milan, Italy, in which 145 countries presented their nations’ food culture and contributions to innovative food science and technology.Scope and approachThe presence and absence of entomophagy in all the national and themed pavilions of Expo 2015 and the way developing and developed nations differed in their presentation of insects were analyzed as a microcosm of global attitudes to insects as food and the barriers towards its wider adoption.Key findings and conclusionsOnly Belgium and the Netherlands presented insects in their vision for the future, and only Angola as traditional cuisine. Nations noted for active entomophagy today such as Mexico and Thailand did not mention insects at all. Efforts to serve insects faced obstacles in Italian import restrictions, which changed by the event's end. Expo 2015 illustrates challenges in promoting global entomophagy, including the need for improved rearing methods, the risks of associating insects with starvation scenarios, and the preference of Westerners for processed insects over whole.     

Disgusting or delicious? Examining attitudinal ambivalence towards entomophagy among Danish consumers

Current meat consumption habits will need to change, especially those of Western consumers. The level of meat consumption is unsustainable, and a recent study estimates a necessary reduction of 90% of the current intake. Insects are a promising alternative to existing protein sources, but previous literature has emphasised the initial level of disgust displayed towards insects as a food option. The overall aim of this paper is to understand the attitude of consumers towards eating insects, also termed entomophagy, in order to outline the barriers that prevent adoption and provide insights in order to overcome these. Data were collected through an online questionnaire with a representative sample of Danish consumers (n = 975). Several constructs from the literature were measured: food neophobia, disgust, intention to try and intention to eat regularly. In addition, a new attitude scale was used, that specifically measures the attitude towards entomophagy. A discrete choice experiment was a part of the questionnaire. Using LatentGold 5.1 a segmentation analysis based on the choice experiment was conducted. The influences of intention were analysed using hierarchical regression in SPSS 25. Results of the choice experiment indicate that different segments of consumers of entomophagy exist, and that different segments are interested in different types of insects. Younger consumers and males are more positive towards entomophagy in general and the insect options in the choice experiment. Results of the regression analysis indicate that the attitude toward eating insects is multidimensional and that there seem to be indications of attitude ambivalence in all segments. The interest in entomophagy is important, as it will be a key factor in overcoming the barrier of disgust and turning insects into an acceptable food choice in the Western world.     

Which insect species can best be proposed for human consumption?

Edible insects have become popular in the past few years not only in the scientific literature but in other media as well. One of the major advantages of entomophagy (eating insects) is said to be the great nutritional composition. Many sources report that insects (generally) have better nutritional characteristics than traditional protein sources. In our research, we aim to give a complete picture of the nutritional profile of insects using a multicriteria optimization method, sum of ranking differences. The materials we used are published results of different authors from the past few years. The proximate analysis tells that insects generally have a better nutritional profile than other meats. The situation is a bit different in the case of mineral content; hence some vegetables have excellent mineral sources but waxworm larvae were ranked in the first three. Additionally, waxworm larvae have the most similar amino acid pattern to the FAO recommendation for adults. Earthworm, house cricket, and mealworm larvae showed the most promising vitamin content; however, huge differences were observed between the developmental stages of insects. A detailed analysis of these differences on the example of mealworms showed that adults may present a better option from the nutritional point of view. Same measurements conducted by different authors on the same species show considerable differences; hence the comparison of the results of different publications is dubious and should be handled with care. Based on our results, insects have a promising nutritional profile and may become part of many food products in the future. Present status of knowledge allows to conclude; which insect is best suitable for human consumption.     

Most promising alternative protein sources possible to use in sports nutrition – A review

A growing world population and ongoing climate change have created a need to find new sources of high-quality food, especially protein, that are sustainable and environmentally friendly and help to reduce unsustainable livestock production. Therefore, it is necessary to look for sources of protein from new raw materials or to use existing materials that have not been used on a large scale. The highest protein intake characterises athletes; thus, the market for high-protein products should be targeted for them. This paper outlines the main problems associated with protein production to date, mainly from animal sources and some known plant sources such as pulses, which can cause gastrointestinal problems in athletes. This review aimed to propose several new/alternative protein sources (Single Cell Protein, edible insects, algae, and potato protein) that may have the potential for use in food, including food for athletes while solving the described problems associated with existing protein sources. Insects have the best amino acid composition; microbial and algal proteins have great potential but require further development of technology for application to food products. Potato proteins are of high value and quality but also contain glycoalkaloids. However, using them brings additional economic and environmental benefits.     

AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF SOME BRAZILIAN SEAWEED SPECIES

Fourteen common seaweed species from northeastern Brazil were examined for protein content and amino acid composition. Protein content varied greatly among the species, ranging from 2.30% (dry weight basis) in Corallina offlcinalis to 25.60%, in Amansia multifida. The species Amansia multifida, Caulerpa sertularioides. Enantiocladia dupcrreyi, Solieria filiformis and Vidalia obtusiloba had protein levels comparable to those of many edible legume seeds, above 18%. They showed high levels of acidic amino acids and reasonable levels of essential amino acids, with methionine being the first limiting amino acid for most of the species. The exceptions were Sargassum vulgare that had a very high content of methionine and Caulerpa sertularioides in which lysine is the first limiting amino acid and methionine the second limiting one. All species are rich in phenylalanine/tyrosine and threonine, and six are very good sources of lysine. The potential use of these species as food and/or feed is discussed .     

Postharvest processes of edible insects in Africa: A review of processing methods,and the implications for nutrition,safety and new products development

In many African cultures, insects are part of the diet of humans and domesticated animals. Compared to conventional food and feed sources, insects have been associated with a low ecological foot print because fewer natural resources are required for their production. To this end, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations recognized the role that edible insects can play in improving global food and nutrition security; processing technologies, as well as packaging and storage techniques that improve shelf-life were identified as being crucial. However, knowledge of these aspects in light of nutritional value, safety, and functionality is fragmentary and needs to be consolidated. This review attempts to contribute to this effort by evaluating the available evidence on postharvest processes for edible insects in Africa, with the aim of identifying areas that need research impetus. It further draws attention to potential postharvest technology options for overcoming hurdles associated with utilization of insects for food and feed. A greater research thrust is needed in processing and this can build on traditional knowledge. The focus should be to establish optimal techniques that improve presentation, quality and safety of products, and open possibilities to diversify use of edible insects for other benefits.     

Acceptance of insects as food in Germany: Is it about sensation seeking,sustainability consciousness,or food disgust?

This study examines the acceptance of insect-based foods by consumers in Germany. The nationwide online survey (N = 516) focused on which factors have the greatest influence on the willingness to consume an insect burger and buffalo worms. In addition to sociodemographic factors, meat consumption and the “classical” variables in the field of entomophagy (familiarity, previous insect consumption, food technology neophobia and food neophobia), the study focuses in particular on the previously unconsidered variables sensation seeking, sustainability consciousness and food disgust. A total of 41.9% of the participants were willing to consume an insect burger. In contrast, only 15.9% of the participants were willing to consume the buffalo worms – a principal ingredient of the insect burger. Hierarchical multiple regressions showed that food disgust was the most important predictor for the acceptance of edible insects, followed by previous insect consumption, food neophobia, gender, sensation seeking and food technology neophobia. The high influence of food disgust shows that not only the explicit disgust for insects is decisive for the consumer readiness of insect-based products, but also the domain specific disgust for food. Despite the strong sustainability awareness of our participants, and contrary to our expectations, sustainability consciousness did not prove to be a significant predictor for the willingness to consume insects. Implications for marketing strategies and educational interventions will be discussed.     

Forest biomass waste as a potential innovative source for rearing edible insects for food and feed – A review

Worldwide, huge quantities of organic wastes are generated annually in the forest industry, but most of these wastes are discarded. Only a minor proportion is used, mainly for biofuel and secondarily for compost production. Simultaneously, demand for more and new food products is increasing due to rapid growth in the global population. In recent years, use of edible insects has been proposed as one promising solution to an upcoming food supply crisis. The rearing of insects for human food and livestock feed has some significant advantages, like high protein content, effective feed conversion rate, low greenhouse gas emissions and low water requirements. The aim of this review was to compile up-to-date information on rearing edible insects for food and feed and to investigate the potential use of forest biomass waste as a new substrate for insect rearing.     

New protein sources and food legislation: the case of edible insects and EU law

Growing global food demand has generated a greater interest in the consumption of new and diversified protein sources. Novel foodstuffs represent a challenge for food law as they need proper safety assessments before obtaining market permission. The case of edible insects and European law is a good representation of this issue because a selection of food grade insect species may be available on the European market in the coming years. However, European legislation does not explicitly address edible insects. Consequently, this has left a grey area, allowing different interpretations of the legislation among Member States. The aim of this paper is to analyse the challenge of the safe management of edible insects in the context of the current legal framework. The current Novel Food legislation, as well as the forthcoming version of the legislation, will be analysed and discussed in relation to edible insects. Particular attention will be paid to the evolution of legislation and to the experiences of both EU and non-EU countries. In recent years, a number of different stakeholders have supported the legalization of edible insect consumption in Europe, but market permission is just the first step towards a new framework for a novel food in a regulatory context. Once admitted, edible insects require proper rules to assure consumers and stakeholders of their benefits and safety. This overview highlights the need to develop clearer legislation to govern the future production and consumption of new food in Europe, provide guarantees to producers, and achieve consumer protection.     

A self-report measure of attitudes toward the eating of insects: construction and validation of the Entomophagy Attitude Questionnaire

Research has made steps towards the understanding of the main drivers and barriers related to Western consumers’ acceptance of food with ingredients derived from insects. Nevertheless, research has been hampered by the absence of a comprehensive, specific, and validated instrument for measuring consumer attitudes towards entomophagy. The current study presents a new self-report instrument for addressing this issue. The instrument was built upon three conceptual cores, which are reflected in the three factors emerged and tested through factor analyses performed on a representative sample of the Danish population (Study 1: N = 975), and a convenience Italian sample (Study 2: N = 543). The first factor represents the negative evaluation of direct entomophagy and is closely connected to disgust. The second factor represents the positive evaluation of direct entomophagy and is closely linked to individuals’ interest to try novel experiences and to eat novel foods. The third factor addresses indirect entomophagy, that is, the attitude towards using insects for feeding other animals that are reared for human consumption. Compared to existing measures of disgust and neophobia, the new instrument performs better in predicting intention in relation to both direct and indirect entomophagy.     

白首乌、何首乌的营养成分分析比较

测定了泰山白首乌(CynanchumbungeiDesce)的一般营养成分、氨基酸、磷脂和矿物元素,并与赤首乌以及其他几种白首乌的该类成分进行了比较,为白首乌类药食两用生物资源的研究提供了理论依据。认为泰山白首乌是一种是比较理想的功能食品新资源。鉴于何首乌(赤首乌)屡有发生肝损伤等毒副作用的实际情况,建议在可用于保健食品的物品名单中取消生何首乌。     

Acceptance of insect-based food in Chile: Evidence from a survey using the entomophagy attitude questionnaire (EAQ)

Research interest in the acceptability of insects as food has dramatically grown in recent years. Investigators have studied the antecedents of people willingness to eat whole insects, processed (non-visible) insects, and insect-fed animals as well. Another important topic is the difference between intention to try insect-based foods once, and readiness to adopt these foods in everyday diet. In 2020, the Entomophagy Attitude Questionnaire has been developed as a tool for researchers in this area. It is the only one self-report questionnaire specific to entomophagy, multi-dimensional, and cross-validated in diverse contexts and languages. The current study contributes to further validate this instrument in Spanish, in a novel context such as Chile, and to expand its nomological validity to intention to eat processed insects. In addition, results show that the three components of the EAQ significantly predict participants’ intention to try insect-based foods and, to a lesser extent, intention to add insect-based food in one own’s diet. Limitations of the study, as well as direction for further research are discussed in the paper.     

Eat or not eat: an analysis of the status of entomophagy in Botswana

In Botswana, mopane worm Imbrasia belina Westwood is culturally accepted as food by people of different age groups from different regions and districts. However, there are several other insect that are anecdotally known to be edible in Botswana. To verify this, a study was conducted by means of a questionnaire and discussions among Batswana of different age groups from six districts in the country to obtain the names of insects that are known to be edible. A total of 27 insect species was identified. The study also investigated methods of collection, processing, precooking preparation, cooking methods, storage and recipes. Chi-square analysis showed that people’s knowledge of edible insects differed with districts and age groups. Older people were more familiar with uncommon edible insect compared to the younger generation. With the exception of mopane worm, the majority of the people interviewed, especially the young, had not eaten any of the species, despite knowing that they were edible. This shows that, apart from the use of mopane worm, entomophagy (the eating of insect by humans) as practiced among Batswana is declining. However, in the light of current decline in food production in Africa, especially in the arid regions of Botswana, insects may make a valuable contribution to the protein and calories of many peoples’ diets. A shift from traditional harvesting to mass production of insects has the potential to provide animal protein to humans through direct consumption or indirectly when used as livestock feed, and could reduce malnutrition.     

Termites as human foods—A comprehensive review

Global food production is anticipated to rise along with the growth of the global population. As a result, creative solutions must be devised to ensure that everyone has access to nutritious, affordable, and safe food. Consequently, including insects in diets has the potential to improve global food and nutrition security. This paper aims to share recent findings by covering edible termites as the main aspect, from their consumption record until consumer acceptance. A total of 53 termite species are reported as edible ones and distributed in 6 biogeographic realms. Generally, termites have a nutrient composition that is suitable for human consumption, and cooked termites are a better dietary choice than their raw counterparts. Besides, increasing customer interest in eating termite-based food can be achieved by making it more palatable and tastier through various cooking processes, that is, boiling, frying, grilling, roasting, smoking, and sun-drying. Moreover, edible termites can also be used as a new source of medication by exhibiting antimicrobial activity. Regarding their advantages, it is strongly encouraged to implement a seminatural rearing system to sustain the supply of edible termites. Overall, this paper makes it evident that termites are an important natural resource for food or medicine. Hence, the long-term objective is to stimulate scientific inquiry into the potential of edible insects as an answer to the problem of global food security.     

Edible mushrooms’ enrichment in food and feed: A mini review

Dietary fibres and high fibre-containing foods have been a huge attraction among researchers and nutraceutical industries due to their health-promoting benefits. From Greek and Roman times, edible mushrooms are considered the ‘elixir of life’ and are often stated as a new source of dietary fibre. Containing rich sources of essential amino acids and polysaccharides, mushrooms are viewed as an advantage over protein sources of both animal and plant origin. Additionally, the ability of mushrooms to grow under controlled conditions and attain high yield in a short span has made this added-value food of extreme interest. Nowadays, mushrooms and their by-products have been used to fortify various food products as well as for use in animal feed owing to their bioactive, therapeutic and nutritional value. Hence, this review intends to highlight the current knowledge on edible mushrooms and their waste for food and feed enrichment and nutritional purposes, along with their role in human and animal diet.     

The insectivore’s dilemma,and how to take the West out of it

A number of health and agricultural organizations have been encouraging Westerners to integrate insects into their diet, without success. Appealing to consumer’s reason and responsibility, as they do, is likely to reinforce a dilemma in the mind of consumers: many know that they can, in principle, eat insects, and perhaps that they should eat some, but very few are willing to eat them. Here we argue that current strategies are on the wrong track in identifying the key obstacle to overcome as a question of the negative representation of insects. Decades of laboratory research, as well as years of experience in gastronomy, suggest that people’s food choices are relatively immune to rational changes of representation, and instead tend to be driven by taste preferences and exposure. Here we suggest an alternative sensorially-driven strategy, which stands a much greater chance of making people eat insects on a regular basis. The turn – or better said return – to entomophagy in this sense, needs to be driven by a psychologically realistic motivation and gastronomic interest.     

薏苡功能活性及应用研究进展

薏苡是一种历史悠久的保健品和中成药,营养丰富且均衡,富含碳水化合物,蛋白质,脂肪,粗纤维,磷、钙、铁等微量元素,以及多种人体所需的必需氨基酸,且不饱和脂肪酸含量较高,有"世界禾本科植物之王"之称。现代药理学研究表明,薏苡中含有脂类、酚类、醇类、酸类、醛酮类、木脂素类、腺苷等70余种生物活性物质,具有抗炎、抗肿瘤、免疫调节、抗病毒、降血糖等生理活性,因此有加工成具有食用和药用价值保健产品的潜力,具有广阔的发展前景。本文综述了近年来国内外关于多酚、黄酮、多糖等多种薏苡生物活性物质在其功能活性及应用方面的研究进展,通过本文综述,以期推进薏苡高值化利用,促进薏苡深加工产业发展,进一步为功能食品开发和农产品深加工提供理论依据。