The use of cutting force and acoustic emission signals for the monitoring of tool insert geometry during rough face milling

The use of acoustic emission (AE) and cutting force has been applied to the detection of changes in milling tool insert geometries. These geometries, produced by precision grinding, were intended to simulate different forms of naturally occurring wear such as crater, notch and flank wear, local changes in rake angle and edge breakdown. The results indicate that both cutting force and AE can be used as indicators of changes in cutting tool geometry with consequent implications for diagnostic, geometry-specific, wear detection.     

Computer design of a multipurpose minimum vibration face milling cutter

A weighted fractional usage design method is developed for obtaining the optimum blade spacings of a face milling cutter so as to reduce the noise and vibration levels. This method, which is executed on a digital computer, ensures low levels at every operating condition. Two illustrative examples are presented to demonstrate the “multi-purpose” nature of the cutter.     

Influence of radial and axial runouts on surface roughness in face milling with round insert cutting tools

In face milling processes, the surface quality of the machined part depends on many factors, including feed, cutting tool geometry and tool errors. In this work, a numerical model for predicting the surface profile and surface roughness as a function of these factors is presented, incorporating a random values generation algorithm that makes it possible to determine the variation in surface roughness from the values that can be adopted by tool errors. This work is focused on round insert cutting tools and the influence of tool errors such as radial and axial runouts. The results that correspond to a number of teeth equal to 4, insert diameter of 12 mm, depth of cut of 0.5 mm, cutting speed of 120 m/min and feed of 0.4–1.4 mm/rev are analysed. Milling experiments are made to verify the validity of the model and the discrepancies between the experimental and theoretical surface profiles are assumed to be a consequence of different factors such as the variation in undeformed chip thickness along the surface profile.     

The effect of runout on the milling tool vibration and surface quality

When milling with tools of a high length to diameter ratio, there is often a non negligible runout. Since those tools tend towards chatter because of their low stiffness, the effect of runout on the dynamic behavior of the tool must be considered. Runout adds an additional dynamic component to the tool vibration and thus to the dynamicly changing cutting forces. Furthermore runout affects the surface quality even in stable machining. This paper analyzes the effect of runout by simulation of the dynamic milling process and compares the results to experimental data. One aspect is the difference of the vibration patterns with and without runout. Furthermore, a method for the analysis of timeseries is presented in order to distinguish between chatter and runout. Another topic is the expected surface quality resulting from stable processes with runout. This surface is modeled, examined and compared to the one produced by a process without runout.     

Ultimate capability of variable pitch milling cutters

Variable pitch milling cutters intend to increase performance, but off-the-shelf cutters do not ensure this generally. Depending on the milling process they are selected for, they can perform better or even worse than uniform pitch cutters do. Improved performance can be guaranteed by considering the reflected dynamic behaviour of the machine/tool/workpiece system. This work presents the achievable upper and lower capability bounds by introducing so-called stabilizability diagrams of a hypothetical variable pitch milling cutter that is tuned continuously along the stability boundaries. Robustly tuned milling cutters are designed for selected spindle speed ranges, which are experimentally tested both under laboratory and industrial conditions.     

Optimal spindle speed determination for vibration reduction during ball-end milling of flexible details

In the paper a method of optimal spindle speed determination for vibration reduction during ball-end milling of flexible details is proposed. In order to reduce vibration level, an original procedure of the spindle speed optimisation, based on the Liao–Young criterion [1], is suggested. As the result, an optimal, constant spindle speed value is determined. For this purpose, non-stationary computational model of machining process is defined. As a result of modelling, a hybrid system is described. This model consists of following subsystems, i.e. stationary model of one-side-supported flexible workpiece (modal subsystem), non-stationary discrete model of ball-end mill (structural subsystem) and conventional contact point between tool and workpiece (connective subsystem). The method requires identification of some natural frequencies of stationary modal subsystem. To determine them, appropriate modal experiments have to be performed on the machine tool, just before machining. Examples of vibration surveillance during cutting process on two high speed milling machines Mikron VCP 600 and Alcera Gambin 120CR are illustrated.     

Experimental research on cutting force variation during regenerative chatter vibration in a plain milling operation

A plain milling operation is characterized by a transient and intermittent cutting process, in which undeformed chip thickness varies continuously. The reverse is the case in variations of undeformed chip thickness in the processes of up- and down-milling. In the present study, the property of regenerative chatter vibration in a plain milling operation is investigated from the viewpoint of cutting force variation. With primary chatter vibration, the vibration energy supply is closely related to the collision of the cutting tool flank against the workpiece surface during vibration, which is induced by the bending vibration or the torsional vibration of the arbor. In addition to this factor, the regenerative effect is considered to be one of the main causes of the chatter excitation in regenerative chatter vibration. The simulation result of the cutting force variation during regenerative chatter vibration agrees well with the experimental result, when considering these factors. It is shown that the regenerative chatter vibration in the-down-milling process occurs more easily than in the up-milling process.     

Experimental research on cutting force variation during primary chatter vibration occuring in plain milling operation

Plain milling operation is characterized by a transient and intermittent cutting process, in which undeformed chip thickness varies continuously. The undeformed chip thickness variation is opposite in the up milling and down milling processes. First, the property of primary chatter vibration in plain milling operation is investigated. In the up milling process, the transient vibration generated in the initial stage of the cutting operation develops into primary chatter vibration, along with the chip thickness increase. On the other hand, a large amount of vibration energy is supplied during the initial collision of the cutting edge with the workpiece at a large undeformed chip thickness in the down milling process; and immediately after this collision, the primary chatter vibration of almost stable amplitude continues. Secondly, the vibration energy supply during the primary chatter vibration of plain milling operations is investigated on the basis of the experimental results. The exciting mechanism can be explained by considering the interference between the tool flank and the workpiece surface accompanying the arbor vibration. An unusual phenomenon is also discussed, in which the normal cutting force component has two maxima during one period of vibration in up milling. From the above results, the cutting edge shapes (effective relief angle and cutting edge radius), and the torsional rigidity of the milling arbor must be carefully determined, to prevent the primary chatter vibration in plain milling operation.     

A comparative study on dry milling and little quantity lubricant milling based on vibration signals

Green manufacturing is the theme of manufacturing industry in the 21st century. In order to realize green manufacturing, it is critical to decrease the usage of cutting fluid in machining as much as possible. Presently, there are still a lot of difficulties in the adoption of dry cutting and MQL cutting for various reasons. This paper presents a new method called little quantity lubrication (LQL) in machining and a comparative study on dry milling and LQL milling based on vibration signals. The vibration signals were acquired from workpiece surface in peripheral milling and were analyzed in time domain, frequency domain and time–frequency domain. The results show that vibration signals can be significantly affected by cutting fluid in milling process. For the sake of reducing vibration and cutting fluid usage, process parameters should be considered while deciding whether or not and how to apply cutting fluid. This research gives a valuable insight in applying LQL in machining.     

Analysis of chatter vibration in the end milling process

This paper continues the work of a previous paper by the authors. A different approach is applied, which adopts frequency domain analysis by linearizing the nonlinear equations to investigate the dynamic behavior in the milling process. A new relationship among the limiting axial depth of cut, workpiece fundamental natural frequency and spindle speed is constructed, and the obtained stable region is also consistent with that of the previous paper.     

Influence of non-uniform ultrasonic vibration on casting fluidity of liquid aluminum alloy

The application of ultrasonic vibration to the casting process can be realized through mould (die) vibration. However, the resonant vibration of the mould is always accompanied by a non-uniform vibration distribution at different parts, which may induce a complex liquid flow and affect the casting fluidity during the mould filling process. The influence of non-uniform ultrasonic vibration on the fluidity of liquid AlSi9Cu3 alloy was studied by mould vibration with different vibration gradients. It is found that ultrasonic mould vibration can generate two opposite effects on the casting fluidity: the first, ultrasonic cavitation in melt induced by mould vibration promotes the casting fluidity; the second, the non-uniform mould vibration can induce a melt flow toward the weak vibration areas and turbulence there, consequently decreasing the casting fluidity. When the melt flow and turbulence are violent enough to offset the promoting effect of cavitation on fluidity, the ultrasonic vibration will finally induce a resultant decrease of casting fluidity. The decreasing effect is proportional to the vibration gradient.

     

A study of high efficiency face milling tools

A new predictive force model for a single-tooth face milling cutter with a chamfered main cutting edge has been derived. Machining tests has been conducted for fly cutting with a chamfered main cutting edge tools on plane surfaces. An S45C medium carbon plate has been used as the workpiece matrial. Force data from these tests were used to estimate the empirical constants of the mechanical model and to verify its prediction capabilities. The results show a good agreement between the predicted and measured forces.Since tool manufacturers does not provide tools with selected combinations of chamfered main cutting edge, radial angle, axial angle and inclination angles, tool holders manufactured in-house were used in the tests. The tips were prepared to the required geometry using a tool grinder.     

Rotary ultrasonic machining for face milling of ceramics

Among the various material removal processes applicable to ceramic materials, rotary ultrasonic machining has the potential for high material removal rate while maintaining low machining pressure and resulting in less surface damage. The limitation of rotary ultrasonic machining is that only circular holes or cavities can be machined due to the rotary motion of the tool. Attempts have been made by other researchers to extend rotary ultrasonic machining process to machining flat surfaces or milling slots. However, these extensions either changed the material removal mechanisms or had some severe drawbacks. One of the reasons for this might be an insufficient understanding of the material removal mechanisms involved. In this paper, a new approach to extend rotary ultrasonic machining to face milling of ceramics is proposed, which keeps all the material removal mechanisms of rotary ultrasonic machining. The development of the experimental apparatus and the design of the cutting tool are described. Preliminary experimental results are presented and discussed.     

An experimental investigation of rotary ultrasonic face milling

Reliable and cost-effective machining of advanced ceramics is crucially important for them to be widely used in a number of critical engineering applications. The potential of Rotary Ultrasonic Machining (RUM) process has been recognized as one of the reliable and cost-effective machining methods for advanced ceramics and commercial machinery is available for the process. One limitation of the commercial RUM machines is that only circular holes can be efficiently machined. An approach to extend the RUM process to face milling of ceramics was proposed and the development of the experimental apparatus as well as the preliminary experimental results were published earlier in this journal. As a follow-up, this paper will present the results of an experimental investigation of the newly-developed Rotary Ultrasonic Face Milling (RUFM) process. In this investigation, a five-variable two-level fractional factorial design is used to conduct the experiments. The purpose of these experiments is to reveal the main effects as well as the interaction effects of the process parameters on the process outputs such as Material Removal Rate (MRR), cutting force, material removal mode and surface roughness.     

A study on instantaneous cutting force coefficients in face milling

In this paper, the characteristics of instantaneous cutting force coefficients in face milling are studied. In order to estimate instantaneous cutting force coefficients in face milling, the relationships between instantaneous cutting force coefficients and measured cutting force signals are derived. A series of experiments are then conducted to study the natures of instantaneous cutting force coefficients. The relationships between instantaneous cutting force coefficients and other cutting parameters are also established. It is found that the normal force coefficient is mainly affected by chip thickness and cutting speed; the vertical force coefficient is mainly affected by chip thickness, cutting edge length and cutting speed; and that the horizontal force coefficient is not only affected by chip thickness, cutting speed and length of cut, but also the variation rate of chip thickness.     

Investigations on the effect of gaseous environment during synthesis on the magnetic properties of Mn-doped ZnO

The bulk polycrystalline samples of Mn-doped ZnO were synthesized with the nominal compositions Zn_1−xMn_xO (x = 0.02, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20 and 0.25) via the standard solid state reaction route by sintering at 800 °C in air and argon atmospheres. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies of the as synthesized samples exhibit the presence of mainly wurtzite (hexagonal) crystal structure similar to the parent compound (ZnO) in all the samples. In addition to this, XRD results also indicate the presence of secondary phases like ZnMn₂O₄ and Mn₃O₄ in minority. The M–H plots, recorded at room temperature, of the samples sintered in air reveals the presence of mainly paramagnetic behavior along with signature of weak ferromagnetic interactions. On the other hand, the M–H curves of all the samples sintered in argon atmosphere shows clear hysteresis loop indicating the presence of room temperature ferromagnetism (RTFM) in the samples. The value of magnetization at a particular field increases as content of Mn in the samples increases. The annealing of the samples in the hydrogenated argon further enhances the magnetization and ferromagnetism, whereas the same deteriorates on annealing in oxygen atmosphere. The possible mechanisms of the observed room temperature ferromagnetism have been discussed.     

Theoretical-experimental modeling of milling machines for the prediction of chatter vibration

Productivity of high speed milling operations can be seriously limited by chatter occurrence. Chatter vibrations can imprint a poor surface finish on the workpiece and can damage the cutting tool and the machine. Chatter occurrence is strongly affected by the dynamic response of the whole system, i.e. the milling machine, the tool holder, the tool, the workpiece and the workpiece clamping fixture. Tool changes must be taken into account in order to properly predict chatter occurrence. In this study, a model of the milling machine-tool is proposed: the machine frame and the spindle were modeled by an experimentally evaluated modal model, while the tool was modeled by a discrete modal approach, based on the continuous beam shape analytical eigenfunctions. A chatter identification technique, based on this analytical-experimental model, was implemented. Tool changes can be easily taken into account without requiring any experimental tests. A 4 axis numerically controlled (NC) milling machine was instrumented in order to identify and validate the proposed model. The milling machine model was excited by regenerative, time-varying cutting forces, leading to a set of Delay Differential Equations (DDEs) with periodic coefficients. The stability lobe charts were evaluated using the semi-discretization method that was extended to n>2 degrees of freedom (dof) models. The stability predictions obtained by the analytical model are compared to the results of several cutting tests accomplished on the instrumented NC milling machine.     

Stable islands in the stability chart of milling processes due to unequal tooth pitch

The use of unequal tooth pitch is a known means to influence and to prevent chatter vibrations in milling. While the process dynamics of equally pitched end mills can be modeled by non-autonomous differential equations with a single constant delay, the dynamics of unequally pitched end mills lead to differential equations with multiple constant delays. In this paper the process stability of an unequally pitched end mill is investigated experimentally and theoretically. The numerical approximation of the stability limit relies on two fundamental methods: Ackermann's method to control systems with delay and the method of the piecewise constant subsystems. On the basis of these two methods two ways for the theoretical stability analysis are derived. The first way neglects the time dependency of the system by replacing the time varying system matrices by their means. The second way accounts for the time dependency of the system by combining Ackermann's method to control systems with delay with the method of the piecewise constant subsystems, which results in the semi-discretization method. Besides the exemplary investigation of a specific end mill the two methods are compared for a simple one degree of freedom system for different number of teeth, different alternating and linear tooth pitch variations and different helix angles. It is shown, that unlike equally pitched end mills also at high radial immersions the time dependency of the system leads to significant differences between the stability limits of the unequally pitched end mills, predicted by the two methods. Depending on the time variance of the system and the unequal tooth pitch stable islands can arise, which are largely located within the stable peaks of the stability diagram of the system where the time varying system matrices are replaced by their means. The correctness of the results are backed up for several operating points by time domain simulations, taking into account the trochoidal movement of the cutting edges, the time varying character of the system and teeth jumping out of contact.     

Mechanics of machining of face-milling operation performed using a self-propelled round insert milling cutter

There has been a renewed interest in the technology of rotary tools because of their ability to perform more productive machining and the concurrent evolution of a number of new ‘difficult-to-machine’ materials. This paper presents an investigation into the application of rotary tools in a face-milling operation. The work involved analysis of cutting forces and chip characteristics, and the development of analytical as well as conceptual models to predict the cutting forces. It was evident that the proposed model predicts cutting force magnitude with a fair accuracy.     

Formation of surface coating on milling balls during milling of Cr powders

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