Revisiting play elements and self-handicapping in play: A comparative ethogram of five Old World monkey species.

Play behavior has been viewed as a mixture of elements drawn from “serious” behavior, interspersed by ritualized play signals. Two other types of play behaviors have been overlooked: patterns that are dissimilar from any serious behavior and patterns with self-handicapping character, that is, those that put the animal into unnecessary disadvantageous positions or situations. Here the authors show that these 2 types of patterns can constitute a major part of play repertoire. From our own videorecordings and observations, we constructed play ethograms of 5 monkey species (Semnopithecus entellus, Erythrocebus patas, Chlorocebus pygerythrus, Cercopithecus neglectus, and Cercopithecus diana). The authors evaluated the self-handicapping character of each pattern and in Hanuman langurs also the (dis)similarity to serious behavior. Of the 74 patterns in the 5 species, 33 (45%) were judged to have a self-handicapping character. Of 48 patterns observed in langurs, 16 (33%) were totally dissimilar to any serious langur behavior known to us. The authors discuss the possibility that the different types of play elements may have different functions in play. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The Development of Modern Behavioural Psychology.

Reviews the book, The Development of Modern Behavioural Psychology by John McLeish (1981). The title of McLeish's book contains two terms that may be somewhat misleading. Describing his efforts as encompassing the "Development" of ideas suggests that the approach is historical, while the term "Modern Behavioural Psychology" might be taken to mean almost anything depending upon one's restrictive use of the term. McLeish, as it turns out, attaches a very restrictive meaning to "Behavioural Psychology". There will probably always be argument about what constitutes a proper historical approach but the reviewer doubts that the tact McLeish takes will ever satisfy. In his review of the history of radical behaviourism, McLeish highlights the work of some writers who have not been given a prominent place by other historians, and discusses, or notes only in passing, authors who have ordinarily been considered prominent. As a history, then, McLeish's book is a disappointment and often annoying. Perhaps the best that can be said about this book is that McLeish hints at a form of behavioural theory which would expand the present boundaries of our thinking. In his enthusiastic advocacy of an account that would recognize the historical, social and cultural origins of human behaviour as well as its complexity (including language, thinking and consciousness), McLeish points to the biological rather than the physical (or mathematical) sciences as the source of appropriate models to develop a science of behaviour. In this he is to be congratulated. It is too bad he did not devote the book to a full development of these notions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of uncertain self-esteem in self-handicapping.

Evaluated the hypothesis posited by E. E. Jones and S. Berglas (see record 1980-25668-001) that some individuals confronted with an intellectual evaluation use a lack of preparation as a self-handicapping strategy. Sex and both level and certainty of self-esteem were examined with regard to the self-handicapping strategy of lack of effort. 54 female and 54 male undergraduates were divided into certain and uncertain and low and high self-esteem groups based on their scores on a self-esteem/certainty index. Ss were led to believe that the experiment was designed to update local norms for a nonverbal test of intellectual ability. After Ss' level of state anxiety was assessed with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, they were instructed in the benefits of practicing for the evaluation. Subsequently, Ss' state anxiety and preparatory efforts (the primary dependent variables) were measured. Ss' practice, self-protective attributions, and related affect supported a self-handicapping interpretation for uncertain males but not for uncertain females. Uncertain males practiced less than certain males and uncertain females, suggesting that the uncertain males may have been attempting to sever the ability–performance link on the upcoming evaluation following failure and/or to augment ability attributions if they had had a successful test experience. Where self-handicapping is concerned, it may not be how much sense of personal worth an individual has but how firmly the individual senses that personal worth is the key. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"I know you self-handicapped last exam": Gender differences in reactions to self-handicapping.

Past research has shown that self-handicapping involves the trade-off of ability-related attributional benefits for interpersonal costs. Study 1 examined whether perceiver or target sex moderates impressions of self-handicapping targets. Although target sex was not an important factor, female perceivers were consistently more critical of behavioral self-handicappers. Two additional studies replicated this gender difference with variations of the handicap. Study 3 examined the motives inferred by perceivers and found that women not only view self-handicappers as more unmotivated but also report greater suspicion of self-handicapping motives; furthermore, these differences in perceived motives mediated sex differences in reactions to self-handicappers. Implications for the effectiveness of self-handicapping as an impression management strategy are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-handicapping and defensive pessimism: Exploring a model of predictors and outcomes from a self-protection perspective.

The present study is centrally concerned with self-handicapping and defensive pessimism (comprising defensive expectations and reflectivity), the factors that predict these strategies, and the associations between these strategies and a variety of academic outcomes. Major findings are that task orientation negatively predicts both self-handicapping and defensive expectations and positively predicts reflectivity; uncertain personal control positively predicts defensive expectations, and to a lesser extent, self-handicapping; and an external attributional orientation is positively associated with self-handicapping, and to a lesser extent, defensive expectations. Both self-handicapping and defensive expectations are negatively associated with self-regulation and persistence, whereas reflectivity is positively associated with these outcomes. Students high in self-handicapping received lower end-of-year grades than did students low in self-handicapping and were less likely to be in attendance 1 year later. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Consequences of self-handicapping: Effects on coping, academic performance, and adjustment.

Self-handicappers erect impediments to performance to protect their self-esteem. The impediments may interfere with the ability to do well and, as such, may result in poor adjustment. Using a longitudinal design, the present studies examined prospective effects of self-handicapping on coping, academic performance, and several adjustment-related variables (e.g., self-esteem). It was found that, compared to low self-handicappers, high self-handicappers reported higher usage of coping strategies implying withdrawal and negative focus. High self-handicappers performed less well academically, an effect that was mediated in part by poor study habits. Finally, high self-handicapping resulted in poorer adjustment over time, and poorer adjustment resulted in higher self-handicapping over time. These relations are consistent with the idea of a vicious cycle in which self-handicapping and poor adjustment reinforce one another. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

An impression management interpretation of the self-handicapping strategy.

Explored the impression-management underpinnings of the self-handicapping strategy of S. Berglas and E. E. Jones (see record 1979-05889-001). 64 male undergraduates were given success feedback after completing soluble or insoluble analogies. While anticipating a 2nd test, Ss were allowed to choose between drugs that would enhance or encumber their performance. Ss who had worked on insoluble problems chose the debilitating drug, but only when the experimenter (E) witnessed the choice. They were most likely to choose the debilitating drug when the E was present and when they believed that the E would have access to their score on the anticipated 2nd test. The data are cautiously interpreted as consistent with an impression management view of self-handicapping. The authors suggest that although it appears that self-handicapping is an impression management strategy at least under some circumstances, the exact nature of the strategy needs further specification. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Gender dysphoria: Development, research, management.

Reviews the book, Gender dysphoria: Development, research, management edited by Betty W. Steiner (1985). The term gender dysphoria is attributed to Fisk (1973) and is described in the introductory chapter as a diagnostic label much broader than transsexualism. It refers to those who, "at one time or another, experience sufficient discomfort with their biological sex to form the wish for sex reassignment". However, when one compares the DSM-III definition of transsexualism as "a persistent sense of discomfort and inappropriateness about one's anatomic sex and a persistent wish to be rid of one's genitals and to live as a member of the other sex", one is left bewildered as to how the concept of gender dysphoria is broader than the diagnostic category of transsexualism. One's bewilderment is more likely to wax than wane when, in subsequent chapters (including two by the editor herself), the term gender dysphoria is rejected in favour of such terms as transsexualism, cross-gender identification, gender disorder, and gender-identity disturbance. Even in the final "personal perspective" chapter, the editor asserts that "This book has been an attempt to bring together in a cohesive whole some of the recent work that has been, and continues to be, done in transsexualism and gender identity". The book, however, is not altogether without merit. There are two noteworthy chapters. One is an intriguing, thought-provoking treatise by Hoenig on the aetiology of transsexualism. The other is Zucker's impressive literature review of crossgender-identified children. Those two chapters, interestingly, are alloted one-fourth of the entire book. The remaining thirteen chapters are left to vie for the remaining pages. The disappointments I encountered with this book reminded me of a Bahamian cruise I was recently fortunate enough to enjoy. At one of the midnight buffets I eagerly chose a pastry that looked somewhat like a cream puff. It was not until I bit into it that I discovered it was void of whipping cream. The shell itself was tasty, but I had expected so much more. Perhaps it is appropriate to compare Steiner's volume to a buffet. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhancing the prediction of self-handicapping.

Levels of test anxiety, Type A and Type B coronary-prone behavior, fear of failure, and covert self-esteem were studied as predictors of self-handicapping performance attributions for college women who were placed in either a high- (N?=?49) or low- (N?=?49) evaluative test or task situation. We hypothesized that test anxiety, Type A or Type B level, and their interaction would account for reliable variance in the prediction of self-handicapping. However, we also theorized that underlying high fear of failure and low covert self-esteem would explain the self-handicapping claims of test-anxious and Type A subjects. The results indicated that only high levels of test anxiety and high levels of covert self-esteem were related to women's self-handicapping attributions. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychology of mystery.

Describes the development of the ways in which psychology has been used in the fictional world of the mystery/detective novel. Application of psychology has included (1) the use of experimental techniques, such as laboratory techniques and deductive reasoning, and (2) the use of applied theories, such as those on motivation or personality, by detectives, psychological consultants, and psychologist-detectives to solve crimes in popular literature. Some of these stories, such as those of C. D. King, a fiction writer who was also a psychologist, mock the usefulness of psychology. Other writers have been optimistic about psychology's helpfulness. The psychology of the detective story can be a fruitful area for exploring the usefulness of psychology to the solution of crimes and mysteries. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-handicapping, defensive pessimism, and goal orientation: A qualitative study of university students.

Interviews with 1st-year university students selected as high or low in either self-handicapping or defensive pessimism identified (a) personal perspectives on the nature of self-handicapping and defensive pessimism, (b) the perceived reasons why they engage in these strategies and the perceived advantages that follow from them, and (c) the extent to which ego goals and task goals mark their approach to their studies. The data confirm previous quantitative research and also provide important qualitative information on the congruencies and differences in goal orientation for self-handicappers and defensive pessimists, the social and academic costs of self-protective behavior, the control students feel they have over their self-protective behavior, and the roles of the family and students' culture in their tendency to self-protect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Benefits of self-handicapping in sport: A field study of university athletes.

Individuals who engage in self-handicapping arrange unfavorable circumstances for their important performances so as to maintain esteem in case of failure, or enhance esteem in case of success. A field study of 15 university swimmers and 14 wrestlers examined potential costs and benefits of this strategy. Self-reports of preparation, anxiety, performance, and flow experiences were obtained repeatedly during competitions over 4 mo. Scale scores identified athletes' predisposition to self-handicap. The higher athletes scored on trait self-handicapping, the poorer practice and nutrition they reported overall and before important events. Nonetheless, athletes' dispositional self-handicapping scores were positively related to performance and self-reports of optimal experience in competitions. Benefits associated with self-handicapping thus appeared to outweigh costs for participants in university-level competitive sport. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Know thyself: Misperceptions of actual performance undermine achievement motivation, future performance, and subjective well-being.

Contrary to the popular assumption that self-enhancement improves task motivation and future performance, the authors propose that both inflated and deflated self-assessments of performance are linked to an increased likelihood of practicing self-handicapping and having relatively poor performance in future tasks. Consistent with this proposal, we found that irrespective of the level of actual performance, compared with accurate self-assessment, both inflated and deflated self-assessments of task performance are associated with a greater tendency to (a) practice self-handicapping (Study 1: prefer to work under distraction; Study 2: withhold preparatory effort), (b) perform relatively poorly in a subsequent task (Study 3), (c) have relatively low academic achievement (Study 4), and (d) report a relatively low level of subjective well-being (Study 5). The authors discuss these results in terms of their educational implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive illusions about marriage among married and single individuals.

The common tendency to describe one's marriage in unrealistic terms has been conceptualized as a positive illusion about marriage. Studies of positive illusions have relied on the logical argument that these perceptions are unreasonably positive. This reasoning is insufficient, because previous studies have relied on volunteer samples with high marital satisfaction and long marital duration, both of which could explain rosy evaluations of one's marriage. The current series of studies examined whether positive marital illusions are an artifact of marital satisfaction and duration. Married and single individuals' estimates of their divorce likelihood and other measures of positive marital illusions revealed that illusions about marriage are not dependent on a volunteer bias, marital satisfaction, or duration. The presence of illusions about a future marriage among single individuals suggests that positive marital illusions are a cultural phenomenon. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of extrinsic incentives on use of test anxiety as an anticipatory attributional defense: Playing it cool when the stakes are high.

Assessed the effect of extrinsic incentives on the use of test anxiety as a self-handicapping strategy. It was hypothesized that although reports of anxiety may be greater when such symptoms can serve a defensive function, this effect occurs only when extrinsic incentives are low and not under conditions of high extrinsic incentive. 84 male undergraduates anticipated taking a test of intellectual abilities and either were led to believe that test anxiety has no effect on test performance or were given no particular information about the relation between test anxiety and performance. Ss were offered either $5 or $25 for obtaining the highest score on the test. Consistent with predictions, no-information Ss reported greater test anxiety before the test than did those who believed that test anxiety was unrelated to performance, but only when the extrinsic incentive for performance was low. However, these Ss did not report greater cognitive interference or exhibit lower test scores than did Ss in other conditions. It is suggested that the defensive strategy used by these Ss consisted of altering perceptions of anxiety, rather than anxiety itself. Implications of the absence of self-handicapping under high incentive conditions are discussed. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Des citoyens en colére: Une question de privation et/ou d'identité sociale?

The present study has two goals. Firstly, the effect of collective relative deprivation (CRD) on different legitimate collective behaviours involving costs of varying magnitude is evaluated. Secondly, the hypothesis stipulating that CRD is influenced by the degree of identification with one's group, and that only CRD has an effect on collective action is tested. This study was conducted in Petiteville where residents have, in the last few years, demonstrated in various ways their opposition to their annexation to Grandeville. In all, 58 residents filled out a questionnaire. As predicted, it was shown that CRD is only associated with radical legitimate action. Results indicate, however, that CRD is not the only, and possibly not the most significant factor in the prediction of such action. When both the effects of CRD, and identification are assessed, only the latter has a significant impact. The situation of the residents of Petiteville was taken into consideration when discussing the results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Object"? I object.

It is time for psychoanalytic discourse to retire the term “object.” The term has become ambiguous, has become anachronistic, and has misleading and even deleterious connotations. It misconstrues the process of internalization as interpreted by contemporary theories and approaches. It also contributes to the impression that psychoanalysis is unconcerned with the kinds of relational and interpersonal factors that have assumed center stage in much analytic thinking. This article addresses different ways that internalizations have been construed and described, and modern concepts of drives that do not require this syntax in order to describe processes of mental representation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role orientation and self-esteem: A critical meta-analytic review.

Research on the relation between sex-role orientation and psychological well-being has been guided by 1 of 3 models. The traditional congruence model holds that psychological well-being is fostered only when one's sex-role orientation is congruent with one's gender; the androgyny model proposes that well-being is maximized when one's sex-role orientation incorporates a high degree of both masculinity and femininity regardless of one's gender; the masculinity model posits that well-being is a function of the extent to which one has a masculine sex-role orientation. The adequacy of the models was tested by meta-analysis of 35 studies of the relation between sex-role orientation and self-esteem, the indicator of psychological well-being most widely used in sex-role studies. Results of the analysis are most supportive of the masculinity model and showed that the strength of observed relations between sex-role orientation and self-esteem varied as a function of both the sex-role measure and the type of self-esteem measure used in the studies. Methodological issues are identified that should be taken into consideration in future research. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reaching-to-eat in humans post-stroke: Fluctuating components within a constant pattern.

Reaching movements of the arm and hand become automatic early in development and are used throughout one's life span. Studies on skilled reaching have focused on the kinematic aspects and have advanced our knowledge of the individual motor components of reaching. It has also been shown that motor behaviors are organized in terms of ethologically relevant actions, rather than by motor components. Thus, it is important to analyze how the motor components of reaching are performed within the overall action as a whole. The objective of the present study was to examine the motor components of reaching-to-eat within the context of the overall behavior in stroke participants. Results show that reaching-to-eat involves the whole body to produce isolated actions of the limb and changes after stroke in three fundamental ways: abnormal use of nonkinematic aspects of movement, body-limb disintegration, and a disruption in the temporal aspect of the phases of reaching-to-eat. The movements within the behavior can reorganize, possibly a reflection of dynamic interactions between behavioral compensation and neuroplasticity, while the overall performance of the behavior remains the same. Such subtle flexibility may be part of the process of recovery. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the self-serving function of social anxiety: Shyness as a self-handicapping strategy.

Tested the hypothesis that socially anxious or shy individuals use their anxiety symptoms as a strategy to control attributions made about their performances in social-evaluative settings (i.e., self-handicapping strategies). 70 female and 72 male undergraduates, classified as low and high socially anxious on the basis of the Social Anxiety and Distress Scale, were given role-play tasks in a 3?×?2?×?2 design. It was predicted that trait-socially anxious or shy Ss would report more symptoms of social anxiety in an evaluative setting in which anxiety or shyness could serve as an excuse for poor performance than would Ss in (a) an evaluative setting in which shyness was precluded as an excuse or (b) a nonevaluative setting. It was also predicted that this self-protective pattern of symptom reporting would not occur for Ss who were not trait-socially anxious because these Ss would not commonly use such symptoms as a self-handicapping strategy. Results support these predictions for males but not for females. Sex differences in the strategic use of shyness are discussed in relation to other research on sex differences in the etiology and correlates of social anxiety. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)