The role of hydrogen in high wind energy penetration electricity systems: The Irish case

The deployment of wind energy is constrained by wind uncontrollability, which poses operational problems on the electricity supply system at high penetration levels, lessening the value of wind-generated electricity to a significant extent. This paper studies the viability of hydrogen production via electrolysis using wind power that cannot be easily accommodated on the system. The potential benefits of hydrogen and its role in enabling a large penetration of wind energy are assessed, within the context of the enormous wind energy resource in Ireland. The exploitation of this wind resource may in the future give rise to significant amounts of surplus wind electricity, which could be used to produce hydrogen, the zero-emissions fuel that many experts believe will eventually replace fossil fuels in the transport sector. In this paper the operation of a wind powered hydrogen production system is simulated and optimised. The results reveal that, even allowing for significant cost-reductions in electrolyser and associated balance-of-plant equipment, low average surplus wind electricity cost and a high hydrogen market price are also necessary to achieve the economic viability of the technology. These conditions would facilitate the installation of electrolysis units of sufficient capacity to allow an appreciable increase in installed wind power in Ireland. The simulation model was also used to determine the CO₂ abatement potential associated with the wind energy/hydrogen production.     

Hybrid systems to address seasonal mismatches between electricity production and demand in nuclear renewable electrical grids

A strategy to enable zero-carbon variable electricity production with full utilization of renewable and nuclear energy sources has been developed. Wind and solar systems send electricity to the grid. Nuclear plants operate at full capacity with variable steam to turbines to match electricity demand with production (renewables and nuclear). Excess steam at times of low electricity prices and electricity demand go to hybrid fuel production and storage systems. The characteristic of these hybrid technologies is that the economic penalties for variable nuclear steam inputs are small. Three hybrid systems were identified that could be deployed at the required scale. The first option is the gigawatt-year hourly-to-seasonal heat storage system where excess steam from the nuclear plant is used to heat rock a kilometer underground to create an artificial geothermal heat source. The heat source produces electricity on demand using geothermal technology. The second option uses steam from the nuclear plant and electricity from the grid with high-temperature electrolysis (HTR) cells to produce hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is primarily for industrial applications; however, the HTE can be operated in reverse using hydrogen for peak electricity production. The third option uses variable steam and electricity for shale oil production.     

Life cycle assessment of nuclear hydrogen production processes based on high temperature gas-cooled reactor

Conventional hydrogen production technologies mostly fossil fuels as energy and material basis. The rapid development of nuclear energy in recent years offers a new opportunity. Clean electricity and process heat generated by nuclear reactors can provide energy for hydrogen production, effectively reducing the environmental burden. This study used life cycle assessment (LCA) method to sort out the inputs and outputs of the nuclear hydrogen production processes and analyze the environmental impacts based on local data in China. In this study, we constructed frameworks for two nuclear energy-based processes and created four different scenarios to compare the effect of energy efficiency. Six indicators were used to quantify the environmental impact. The results showed that: (1) electrolysis cell manufacturing and spent fuel disposal generate the largest emissions in hydrogen production. (2) S–I cycle is sensitive to heat transfer efficiency, while high-temperature electrolysis is more sensitive to power generation efficiency; (3) The environmental impact of high-temperature electrolysis (without carrier gas) is slightly lower than that of S–I cycle, but the advantage will disappear as energy efficiency increases. At present, high-temperature electrolysis offers a clean alternative to conventional technologies for hydrogen energy and hydrogen economy. The S–I cycle might have a better prospect in the future. Our study results will provide a scientific assessment of the possibilities of developing nuclear energy for hydrogen production in China and help to make some decisions and policies.     

The impact of carbon sequestration on the production cost of electricity and hydrogen from coal and natural-gas technologies in Europe in the medium term

Carbon sequestration is a distinct technological option with a potential for controlling carbon emissions; it complements other measures, such as improvements in energy efficiency and utilization of renewable energy sources. The deployment of carbon sequestration technologies in electricity generation and hydrogen production will increase the production costs of these energy carriers. Our economic assessment has shown that the introduction of carbon sequestration technologies in Europe in 2020, will result in an increase in the production cost of electricity by coal and natural gas technologies of 30–55% depending on the electricity-generation technology used; gas turbines will remain the most competitive option for generating electricity; and integrated gasification combined cycle technology will become competitive. When carbon sequestration is coupled with natural-gas steam reforming or coal gasification for hydrogen production, the production cost of hydrogen will increase by 14–16%. Furthermore, natural-gas steam reforming with carbon sequestration is far more economically competitive than coal gasification.     

The economic competitiveness of promising nuclear energy system: A closer look at the input uncertainties in LCOE analysis

In this study, we aimed to provide important information about the potential economic benefits and risks of nuclear electricity generation associated with existing and prevailing nuclear technologies and to examine the economic effects of nuclear fuel cycle strategies in Korea. An economic analysis model that evaluates the overall life‐cycle costs of nuclear energy systems coupled with multiple fuel cycle options was specially developed by using the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) as the fundamental methodology. This model is capable of identifying a range of techno‐economic uncertainties underlying each individual nuclear energy system taking into account the state of the art in fuel cycle technologies. It can also quantify and incorporate the resulting impacts into a system‐wide LCOE distribution for each fuel cycle option based on Monte Carlo probabilistic simulation. We analyzed and discussed examples of the economic performance of 13 promising candidates for nuclear energy systems integrated with extensive fuel cycle technologies (including one direct disposal and 12 specific reprocessing and recycling fuel cycle options). We also conducted a sensitivity analysis to investigate the major sensitivity factors of the system component cost in each fuel cycle option and their impacts on individual economic performances. Furthermore, a closer look at the techno‐economic uncertainties of advanced fuel cycle technologies in a break‐even analysis offers evidence of the potential economic feasibility and cost‐reduction opportunities in the reprocessing and recycling options relative to the direct disposal of spent nuclear fuel.     

Role of hydrogen in future North European power system in 2060

The Balmorel model has been used to calculate the economic optimal energy system configuration for the Scandinavian countries and Germany in 2060 assuming a nearly 100% coverage of the energy demands in the power, heat and transport sector with renewable energy sources. Different assumptions about the future success of fuel cell technologies have been investigated as well as different electricity and heat demand assumptions. The variability of wind power production was handled by varying the hydropower production and the production on CHP plants using biomass, by power transmission, by varying the heat production in heat pumps and electric heat boilers, and by varying the production of hydrogen in electrolysis plants in combination with hydrogen storage. Investment in hydrogen storage capacity corresponded to 1.2% of annual wind power production in the scenarios without a hydrogen demand from the transport sector, and approximately 4% in the scenarios with a hydrogen demand from the transport sector. Even the scenarios without a demand for hydrogen from the transport sector saw investments in hydrogen storage due to the need for flexibility provided by the ability to store hydrogen. The storage capacities of the electricity storages provided by plug-in hybrid electric vehicles were too small to make hydrogen storage superfluous.     

Resource assessment for green hydrogen production in Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan has long been regarded as a major exporter of fossil fuel energy. As the global energy sector is undergoing an unprecedented transition to low-carbon solutions, new emerging energy technologies, such as hydrogen production, require more different resource bases than present energy technologies. Kazakhstan needs to consider whether it has enough resources to stay competitive in energy markets undergoing an energy transition. Green hydrogen can be made from water electrolysis powered by low-carbon electricity sources such as wind turbines and solar panels. We provided the first resource assessment for green hydrogen production in Kazakhstan by focusing on three essential resources: water, renewable electricity, and critical raw materials. Our estimations showed that with the current plan of Kazakhstan to keep its water budget constant in the future, producing 2–10 Mt green hydrogen would require reducing the water use of industry in Kazakhstan by 0.6–3% or 0.036–0.18 km³/year. This could be implemented by increasing the share of renewables in electricity generation and phasing out some of the water- and carbon-intensive industries. Renewable electricity potential in South and West Kazakhstan is sufficient to run electrolyzers up to 5700 and 1600 h/year for wind turbines and solar panels, respectively. In our base case scenario, 5 Mt green hydrogen production would require 50 GW solar and 67 GW wind capacity, considering Kazakhstan's wind and solar capacity factors. This could convert into 28,652 tons of nickel, 15,832 tons of titanium, and many other critical raw materials. Although our estimations for critical raw materials were based on limited geological data, Kazakhstan has access to the most critical raw materials to support original equipment manufacturers of low-carbon technologies in Kazakhstan and other countries. As new geologic exploration kicks off in Kazakhstan, it is expected that more deposits of critical raw materials will be discovered to respond to their potential future needs for green hydrogen production.     

Green hydrogen potentials from surplus hydro energy in Nepal

This paper studies the potentials of green hydrogen production from hydropower energy and its application in electricity regeneration and replacement of petroleum products from the transportation sector in Nepal. The potential surplus hydroelectric energy, and hydrogen production potential from the surplus energy considering different scenarios, is forecasted for the study period (2022–2030). The results showed that hydrogen production potential ranges from 63,072 tons to 3,153,360 tons with the utilization of surplus energy at 20% and 100% respectively, in 2030. The economic analysis of hydrogen from hydropower projects that electricity is valued based on per kg of hydrogen when the surplus electricity is provided at feasible lower price values compared to the US $1.17. This study concludes that hydrogen production from spilled hydro energy and its use in the transportation sector and independent electricity generation is a niche opportunity to lead the country towards sustainable energy solutions and an economy running on hydrogen.     

Low-carbon hydrogen production via electron beam plasma methane pyrolysis: Techno-economic analysis and carbon footprint assessment

Electron beam plasma methane pyrolysis is a hydrogen production pathway from natural gas without direct CO₂ emissions. In this work, two concepts for a technical implementation of the electron beam plasma pyrolysis in a large-scale hydrogen production plant are presented and evaluated in regards of efficiency, economics and carbon footprint. The potential of this technology is identified by an assessment of the results with the benchmark technologies steam methane reforming, steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage as well as water electrolysis. The techno-economic analysis shows levelized costs of hydrogen for the plasma pyrolysis between 2.55 €/kg H₂ and 5.00 €/kg H₂ under the current economic framework. Projections for future price developments reveal a significant reduction potential for the hydrogen production costs, which support the profitability of plasma pyrolysis under certain scenarios. In particular, water electrolysis as direct competitor with renewable electricity as energy supply shows a considerably higher specific energy consumption leading to economic advantages of plasma pyrolysis for cost-intensive energy sources and a high degree of utilization. Finally, the carbon footprint assessment indicates the high potential for a reduction of life cycle emissions by electron beam plasma methane pyrolysis (1.9 kg CO₂ eq./kg H₂ – 6.4 kg CO₂ eq./kg H₂, depending on the electricity source) compared to state-of-the-art hydrogen production technology (10.8 kg CO₂ eq./kg H₂).     

Feasibility of hydrogen corridors between the EU and its neighbouring countries

The debate-taking place at present about a future European energy system focuses on hydrogen as a potential future energy carrier. Hydrogen corridors offer, among other things, the possibilities of coping with the energy resource limitations for hydrogen production in the EU25 and improving energy supply security. This study deals with the assessment of economically optimal hydrogen corridors between the EU25 and neighbouring countries using consistent hydrogen scenarios, cost and potential calculations, the identification of barriers and policy recommendations.The analysis shows that specific hydrogen corridors (e.g. Norway, Iceland) could play a role for supplying renewable hydrogen in or shortly after the introduction phase of hydrogen as an energy carrier in the EU. Subsequently, with an increasing demand for hydrogen in the EU25, other large-scale hydrogen corridors based on renewables constitute a very promising option from both the economic perspective as well as from the perspective of realizing a sustainable hydrogen supply. However, competing utilisation possibilities for renewable resources and the potentially increasing demand for hydrogen within the neighbouring countries themselves may limit this option. Hydrogen corridors based on fossil or nuclear feedstock are not promising because it is usually more beneficial to transport the feedstock or electricity itself instead of hydrogen.     

Exergoeconomic machine-learning method of integrating a thermochemical Cu–Cl cycle in a multigeneration combined cycle gas turbine for hydrogen production

Integrating new technologies into existing thermal energy systems enables multigenerational production of energy sources with high efficiency. The advantages of multigenerational energy production are reflected in the rapid responsiveness of the adaptation of energy source production to current market conditions. To further increase the useful efficiency of multigeneration energy sources production, we developed an exergoeconomic machine-learning model of the integration of the hydrogen thermochemical Cu–Cl cycle into an existing gas-steam power plant. The hydrogen produced will be stored in tanks and consumed when the market price is favourable. The results of the exergoeconomic machine-learning model show that the production and use of hydrogen, in combination with fuel cells, are expedient for the provision of tertiary services in the electricity system. In the event of a breakdown of the electricity system, hydrogen and fuel cells could be used to produce electricity for use by the thermal power plant. The advantages of own or independent production of electricity are primarily reflected in the start-up of a gas-steam power plant, as it is not possible to start a gas turbine without external electricity. The exergy analysis is also in favour of this, as the integration of the hydrogen thermochemical Cu–Cl cycle into the existing gas-steam power plant increases the exergy efficiency of the process.     

Industry evolution,rational agents and the transition to sustainable electricity production

Guiding a transition to low carbon electricity requires a good understanding of the substitution of old by new technologies in the electricity industry. With the aim of explaining historical change from coal to gas in the British electricity industry, we develop a formal model of technological change, where energy technologies diffuse through the construction of new power plants. We considered two model versions: with rational and boundedly rational investors. In each model version, we look at the causal relations between price and output setting mechanisms, fuel and labour use, and investment decisions for different institutional arrangements. We quantify model parameters on data for the United Kingdom. We find that the version of the model with rational investors is capable of replicating well core features of UK electricity history. This includes a rapid diffusion of gas in electricity production, the evolution of the average size of newly installed plants, and a high percentage of electricity sales covered by (forward) contracts-for-difference. In this model setting, nuclear and renewable energies have no chance to diffuse on the market. In the version of the model with boundedly rational investors, nuclear power typically dominates electricity production. We discuss implications of our modelling results for making a transition to low carbon electricity in the future.     

Reimagining future energy systems: Overview of the US program to maximize energy utilization via integrated nuclear-renewable energy systems

A sustainable, balanced energy portfolio is necessary for a country's continued economic growth. This portfolio must collectively be able to provide reliable, resilient electricity at stable, affordable prices. Nuclear energy is an important contributor to global clean energy supply, both as a primary source and by complementing and enabling other clean energy sources. As we look to the design and operation of future energy systems, we see an increasing need to think differently about how we utilize our energy resources to meet all of our energy needs—not just electricity but also industrial and transportation demands. Resource utilization in light of a broader desire to reduce environmental impacts leads us to consider transforming how we use nuclear energy, which currently provides more than half of the nonemitting electricity generated in the United States. A paradigm shift is required to develop optimal energy generation and use configurations that embrace novel approaches to system integration and process design. The US Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Nuclear Energy (NE) program on Integrated Energy Systems (IES)—formerly the Nuclear-Renewable Hybrid Energy Systems (N-R HES) program—was established to evaluate potential options for the coordinated use of nuclear and renewable energy generators to meet energy demands across the electricity, industrial, and transportation sectors. These formerly independent sectors are becoming increasingly linked through technology advances in data acquisition, communications, demand response approaches, and control technologies. Advanced modeling and simulation tools can be employed to design systems that better coordinate across these sectors. Implementation of integrated multi-input, multi-output energy systems will allow for expanded use of nuclear energy beyond the grid in a manner that complements the increased build-out of variable renewable energy generation. These integrated systems would provide enhanced flexibility while also providing energy services and supporting the production of additional, nonelectric commodities (eg, potable water, hydrogen, and liquid fuels) via excess thermal and electrical energy from the nuclear system. Increased flexibility of traditionally baseload nuclear systems will support energy security, grid reliability, and grid resilience while maximizing the use of clean energy technologies. This paper provides an overview of current efforts in the United States that assess the potential to increase utilization of nuclear energy systems, in concert with renewable energy generation, via the IES program. Analysis tools and approaches and preliminary analysis results are summarized, and planned experimental activities to demonstrate integrated system performance are introduced.     

Dynamic simulation of a novel nuclear hybrid energy system with large-scale hydrogen storage in an underground salt cavern

In this study, a nuclear hybrid energy system (NHES) with large-scale hydrogen storage integrated with a gas turbine cycle is proposed as a flexible system for load following. The proposed system consists of a nuclear reactor, a steam Rankine cycle, a hydrogen electrolyzer, a storage system for hydrogen in an underground salt cavern, and a Brayton cycle that uses hydrogen as fuel to generate additional electricity to meet peak demand. A dynamic mathematical model is developed for each subsystem of the NHES. To evaluate the potential benefits of the system, a one-year study is conducted, using scaled grid demand data from ISO New England. The dynamic simulation results show that the system is capable of meeting the demand of the grid without additional electricity from outside sources for 93% of the year, while decreasing the number of ramping cycles of the nuclear reactor by 92.7%. There is also potential for economic benefits as the system only had to ramp up and down 7.4% of the year, which increased the nuclear capacity factor from 86.3% to 98.3%. The simulation results show that the proposed hybrid system improves the flexibility of nuclear power plants, provides more electricity, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.     

The role of hydrogen in the transition from a petroleum economy to a low-carbon society

A radical decarbonization pathway for the Norwegian society towards 2050 is presented. The paper focuses on the role of hydrogen in the transition, when present Norwegian petroleum export is gradually phased out. The study is in line with EU initiatives to secure cooperation opportunities with neighbouring countries to establish an international hydrogen market. Three analytical perspectives are combined. The first uses energy models to investigate the role of hydrogen in an energy and power market perspective, without considering hydrogen export. The second, uses an economic equilibrium model to examine the potential role of hydrogen export in value creation. The third analysis is a socio-technical case study on the drivers and barriers for hydrogen production in Norway. Main conclusions are that access to renewable power and hydrogen are prerequisites for decarbonization of transport and industrial sectors in Norway, and that hydrogen is a key to maintain a high level of economic activity. Structural changes in the economy, impacts of new technologies, and key enablers and barriers in this transition are discussed.     

Appropriate technologies for large-scale production of electricity and hydrogen fuel

Appropriate technology for energy supply requires the use of the most effective energy resources and conversion technologies that will also result in the minimum acceptable impact upon the environment. A useful parameter for evaluation of energy resources for large-scale production of electricity and hydrogen fuel is the specific energy of the appropriate energy resources. Available resources for such large-scale applications must come from some mixture of renewable, fossil, and nuclear energy. Analysis is made of the appropriate use of solar energy, chemical combustion fuels, and nuclear energy on the basis of their specific energy. The results show that the most appropriate resources for large-scale production of electricity and hydrogen are low-specific solar photovoltaic and wind turbine energy for large numbers of distributed small-scale applications and high-specific nuclear energy for smaller numbers of large-scale applications.     

Economic analysis of hydrogen-powered data center

The data center needs more and more electricity due to the explosive growth of IT servers and it could cause electricity power shortage and huge carbon emission. It is an attractive and promising solution to power the data center with hydrogen energy source. The present work aims to conduct an economic analysis on the hydrogen-powered data center. Configurations of hydrogen-powered and traditional data centers are compared and the differences focus on backup power system, converter/inverter, fuel cell subsystem, carbon emission, hydrogen and electricity consumptions. Economic analysis is conducted to evaluate the feasibility to power the data center with hydrogen energy source. Results show that electricity price increasing rate and hydrogen cost are the main factors to influence economic feasibility of hydrogen-powered data center. When the electricity price keeps constant in the coming two decades, the critical hydrogen price is about 2.8 U.S. dollar per kilogram. If the electricity price could increase 5% annually due to explosive growth of electric vehicles and economy, critical hydrogen price will become 6.4 U.S. dollar per kilogram. Hydrogen sources and transportation determine the hydrogen price together. Hydrogen production cost varies greatly with hydrogen sources and production technologies. Hydrogen transport cost is greatly influenced by distances and H₂ consumptions to consumers. It could be summarized that the hydrogen-powered data center is economic if hydrogen could be produced from natural gas or H₂-rich industrial waste streams in chemical plant and data center could not be built too far away from hydrogen sources. In addition, large-scale hydrogen-powered data center is more likely to be economic. Solar hydrogen powered data center has entered into a critical stage in the economic feasibility. Solar hydrogen production cost has restrained the H₂ utilization in data center power systems now, since it could be competitive only when more strict carbon emission regulation is employed, hydrogen production cost reduces greatly and electricity price is increasing greatly in the future. However, it could be expected solar hydrogen-powered system will be adopted as the power source of data centers in the next few years.     

Synergistic roles of off-peak electrolysis and thermochemical production of hydrogen from nuclear energy in Canada

Hydrogen as a clean energy carrier is frequently identified as a major solution to the environmental problem of greenhouse gases, resulting from worldwide dependence on fossil fuels. However, most of the world's hydrogen (about 96%) is currently produced from fossil fuels, which does not address the issue of greenhouse gases. Although there is a large motivation of the “hydrogen economy”, for improvement of urban air quality, energy security, and integration of intermittent renewable energy sources, CO₂ free energy sources are critical to hydrogen becoming a significant energy carrier. Two technologies, applied in tandem, have a promising potential to generate hydrogen without leading to greenhouse gas emissions: 1) electrolysis and 2) thermochemical decomposition of water. This paper will investigate their unique complementary roles to reduce costs of hydrogen production. Together they have a unique potential to serve both de-centralized hydrogen needs in periods of low-demand electricity, and centralized base-load production from a nuclear station. Thermochemical methods have a significantly higher thermal efficiency, but electrolysis can take advantage of low electricity prices during off-peak hours, as well as intermittent and de-centralized supplies like wind, solar or tidal power. By effectively linking these systems, water-based production of hydrogen can become more competitive against the predominant existing technology, SMR (steam-methane reforming).     

The production of hydrogen fuel from renewable sources and its role in grid operations

Understanding the scale and nature of hydrogen's potential role in the development of low carbon energy systems requires an examination of the operation of the whole energy system, including heat, power, industrial and transport sectors, on an hour-by-hour basis. The Future Energy Scenario Assessment (FESA) software model used for this study is unique in providing a holistic, high resolution, functional analysis, which incorporates variations in supply resulting from weather-dependent renewable energy generators. The outputs of this model, arising from any given user-definable scenario, are year round supply and demand profiles that can be used to assess the market size and operational regime of energy technologies. FESA was used in this case to assess what - if anything - might be the role for hydrogen in a low carbon economy future for the UK.In this study, three UK energy supply pathways were considered, all of which reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050, and substantially reduce reliance on oil and gas while maintaining a stable electricity grid and meeting the energy needs of a modern economy. All use more nuclear power and renewable energy of all kinds than today's system. The first of these scenarios relies on substantial amounts of ‘clean coal’ in combination with intermittent renewable energy sources by year the 2050. The second uses twice as much intermittent renewable energy as the first and virtually no coal. The third uses 2.5 times as much nuclear power as the first and virtually no coal.All scenarios clearly indicate that the use of hydrogen in the transport sector is important in reducing distributed carbon emissions that cannot easily be mitigated by Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS). In the first scenario, this hydrogen derives mainly from steam reformation of fossil fuels (principally coal), whereas in the second and third scenarios, hydrogen is made mainly by electrolysis using variable surpluses of low-carbon electricity. Hydrogen thereby fulfils a double facetted role of Demand Side Management (DSM) for the electricity grid and the provision of a ‘clean’ fuel, predominantly for the transport sector. When each of the scenarios was examined without the use of hydrogen as a transport fuel, substantially larger amounts of primary energy were required in the form of imported coal.The FESA model also indicates that the challenge of grid balancing is not a valid reason for limiting the amount of intermittent renewable energy generated. Engineering limitations, economic viability, local environmental considerations and conflicting uses of land and sea may limit the amount of renewable energy available, but there is no practical limit to the conversion of this energy into whatever is required, be it electricity, heat, motive power or chemical feedstocks.     

A market potential and economical aspects of a future hydrogen supply for the F.R.G.

Based on a scenario for energetic and non-energetic demand in the F.R.G. up to the year 2030, we calculated potentials for non-fossil-made hydrogen to substitute or support hydrocarbons such as oil products and natural gas. The potential demand of hydrogen as a raw material was found to be about 20 MTCE in 2030. The market would be in chemistry, fuel production and iron and steel industry. The potential for hydrogen as an energy carrier is roughly three times higher. An investigation of the growth of utility capacity showed that after the year 1995 nuclear plants could also be introduced for medium load electricity production. The use of these plants for off-peak electrolysis would give rise to hydrogen production sufficient to cover the potential demand of hydrogen as a raw material. This off-peak hydrogen can be produced economically compared to natural gas even at today's level of energy costs. With a real increase of prices for imported hydrocarbons in the order of 1–3%/y, other nuclear technologies for additional hydrogen production (for example thermochemical processes) might reach an economical breakeven point at the beginning of the next century. Installation of nuclear power for this purpose could supply the energy market with 20 MTCE of hydrogen in 2030. This hydrogen could be mixed with the natural gas and transported in the network already existing for gas distribution with only moderate modifications on network and burners.