Impacts of booming economic growth and urbanization on carbon dioxide emissions in Chinese megalopolises over 1985–2010: an index decomposition analysis

Given the booming economic growth and urbanization in China, cities have become crucial to sustaining this development and curbing national emissions. Understanding the key drivers underlying the rapid emissions growth is critical to providing local solutions for national climate targets. By using index decomposition analysis, we explore the factors contributing to the carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in Chinese megalopolises from 1985 to 2010. An additional decomposition analysis of the industry sector is performed because of its dominant contribution to the total emissions. The booming economy and expanding urban areas are the major drivers to the increasing CO₂ emissions in Chinese megalopolises over the examined period. The significant improvement in energy intensity is the primary factor for reducing CO₂ emissions, the declining trend of which, however, has been suspended or reversed since 2000. The decoupling effect of the adjustments in the economic structure only occurred in three megalopolises, namely, the Yangtze River Delta (YRD), the Beijing-Tianjin-Heibei Megalopolis (BTJ), and the Pearl River Delta (PRD). In comparison, the impacts of urban density and carbon intensity are relatively marginal. The further disaggregated decomposition analysis in the industry sector shows that energy intensity improvements were widely achieved in 36 sub-industries in the PRD. The results also indicate the concentrations of energy-intensive industries in the PRD, posing a major challenge to local governments for a low-carbon economy. As economic growth and urbanization continue, reductions in energy intensity and clean energy therefore warrant much more policy attentions due to their crucial roles in reducing carbon emissions and satisfying the energy demand.     

广州市碳排放达峰值分析

本文对城市达峰值的规律以及峰值研究方法进行了梳理,研究广州市碳排放峰值时先对广州市碳排放影响因素进行分解分析,随后基于相关规划对广州市的碳排放峰值进行了情景分析。结果表明,经济增长和人口规模是促进广州市碳排放的两个主要因素。经济增长是最重要的影响因素,未来人口增长将不会是碳排放增长的主要影响因素。产业结构、能源强度和碳排放系数都是减缓广州市碳排放的影响因素,其中能源强度的减排贡献度最大。未来广州市能源消费总量将持续增加,在高经济增速的情况下,广州市至2030年仍未达到碳排放峰值;在较低经济增速的情况下,广州市在2020年左右便可实现碳排放峰值。要实现碳排放达峰,必须引导合理的能源消费需求,加大节能力度;加快产业转型,大力发展低碳技术;大力发展天然气和新能源。
关键词：能源消费量;碳排放;峰值目标;广州市     

Enabling technologies for industrial energy demand management

This state-of-science review sets out to provide an indicative assessment of enabling technologies for reducing UK industrial energy demand and carbon emissions to 2050. In the short term, i.e. the period that will rely on current or existing technologies, the road map and priorities are clear. A variety of available technologies will lead to energy demand reduction in industrial processes, boiler operation, compressed air usage, electric motor efficiency, heating and lighting, and ancillary uses such as transport. The prospects for the commercial exploitation of innovative technologies by the middle of the 21st century are more speculative. Emphasis is therefore placed on the range of technology assessment methods that are likely to provide policy makers with a guide to progress in the development of high-temperature processes, improved materials, process integration and intensification, and improved industrial process control and monitoring. Key among the appraisal methods applicable to the energy sector is thermodynamic analysis, making use of energy, exergy and ‘exergoeconomic’ techniques. Technical and economic barriers will limit the improvement potential to perhaps a 30% cut in industrial energy use, which would make a significant contribution to reducing energy demand and carbon emissions in UK industry. Non-technological drivers for, and barriers to, the take-up of innovative, low-carbon energy technologies for industry are also outlined.     

Climate consequences of low-carbon fuels: The United States Renewable Fuel Standard

A common strategy for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from energy use is to increase the supply of low-carbon alternatives. However, increasing supply tends to lower energy prices, which encourages additional fuel consumption. This “fuel market rebound effect” can undermine climate change mitigation strategies, even to the point where efforts to reduce GHG emissions by increasing the supply of low-carbon fuels may actually result in increased GHG emissions. Here, we explore how policies that encourage the production of low-carbon fuels may result in increased GHG emissions because the resulting increase in energy use overwhelms the benefits of reduced carbon intensity. We describe how climate change mitigation strategies should follow a simple rule: a low-carbon fuel with a carbon intensity of X% that of a fossil fuel must displace at least X% of that fossil fuel to reduce overall GHG emissions. We apply this rule to the United States Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS2). We show that absent consideration of the fuel market rebound effect, RFS2 appears to reduce GHG emissions, but once the fuel market rebound effect is factored in, RFS2 actually increases GHG emissions when all fuel GHG intensity targets are met.     

China's energy and emissions outlook to 2050: Perspectives from bottom-up energy end-use model

Although China became the world's largest CO₂ emitter in 2007, the country has also taken serious actions to reduce its energy and carbon intensity. This study uses the bottom-up LBNL China End-Use Energy Model to assess the role of energy efficiency policies in transitioning China to a lower emission trajectory and meeting its 2020 intensity reduction goals. Two scenarios – Continued Improvement and Accelerated Improvement – were developed to assess the impact of actions already taken by the Chinese government as well as planned and potential actions, and to evaluate the potential for China to reduce energy demand and emissions. This scenario analysis presents an important modeling approach based in the diffusion of end-use technologies and physical drivers of energy demand and thereby help illuminate China's complex and dynamic drivers of energy consumption and implications of energy efficiency policies. The findings suggest that China's CO₂ emissions will not likely continue growing throughout this century because of saturation effects in appliances, residential and commercial floor area, roadways, fertilizer use; and population peak around 2030 with slowing urban population growth. The scenarios also underscore the significant role that policy-driven efficiency improvements will play in meeting 2020 carbon mitigation goals along with a decarbonized power supply.     

Towards real energy economics: Energy policy driven by life-cycle carbon emission

Alternative energy technologies (AETs) have emerged as a solution to the challenge of simultaneously meeting rising electricity demand while reducing carbon emissions. However, as all AETs are responsible for some greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during their construction, carbon emission “Ponzi Schemes” are currently possible, wherein an AET industry expands so quickly that the GHG emissions prevented by a given technology are negated to fabricate the next wave of AET deployment. In an era where there are physical constraints to the GHG emissions the climate can sustain in the short term this may be unacceptable. To provide quantitative solutions to this problem, this paper introduces the concept of dynamic carbon life-cycle analyses, which generate carbon-neutral growth rates. These conceptual tools become increasingly important as the world transitions to a low-carbon economy by reducing fossil fuel combustion. In choosing this method of evaluation it was possible to focus uniquely on reducing carbon emissions to the recommended levels by outlining the most carbon-effective approach to climate change mitigation. The results of using dynamic life-cycle analysis provide policy makers with standardized information that will drive the optimization of electricity generation for effective climate change mitigation.     

Driving factors behind carbon dioxide emissions in China: A modified production-theoretical decomposition analysis

Research on the driving factors behind carbon dioxide emission changes in China can inform better carbon emission reduction policies and help develop a low-carbon economy. As one of important methods, production-theoretical decomposition analysis (PDA) has been widely used to understand these driving factors. To avoid the infeasibility issue in solving the linear programming, this study proposed a modified PDA approach to decompose carbon dioxide emission changes into seven drivers. Using 2005–2010 data, the study found that economic development was the largest factor of increasing carbon dioxide emissions. The second factor was energy structure (reflecting potential carbon), and the third factor was low energy efficiency. Technological advances, energy intensity reductions, and carbon dioxide emission efficiency improvements were the negative driving factors reducing carbon dioxide emission growth rates. Carbon dioxide emissions and driving factors varied significantly across east, central and west China.     

Identifying the main uncertainty drivers of energy security in a low-carbon world: The case of Europe

This analysis contributes to recent efforts to better understand the evolution of energy security in a low-carbon world. Our objective was to assess how energy security may change over the course of the century, and to what extent these changes depend on the uncertainty of the factors that drive the evolution of energy systems, including future technologies, improved energy efficiency, fossil fuel resources and markets, and economic growth. To this end, we focused on Europe and on a set of energy security indicators based on three perspectives: sovereignty, robustness and resilience. A database of scenarios allowed us to account for the large uncertainties surrounding the determinants of future energy systems. We then analyzed the way energy security indicators evolve over time, and how their trajectories vary across scenarios. We identified the indicators that vary the most between scenarios, i.e., the indicators whose future evolution is the most uncertain. For these indicators, we performed an analysis of variance to estimate the contribution of each driver to the uncertainty of the indicators. The paper shows that the European double target of significantly decreasing CO₂ emissions and increasing the security of the supply of energy may be difficult to reach. Nevertheless, some levers could facilitate the transition to a low-carbon society while improving energy security, or by limiting its degradation. The results emphasize not only the importance of policies in favor of low or zero carbon technologies in power generation but also the differences in their contributions to the complete uncertainty of the indicators. Policies promoting energy efficiency also play a role but only in the resilience of TPES. These policies are thus important levers for mitigating the negative impacts of climate policies on energy security.     

中国2050年低碳情景和低碳发展之路

利用IPAC模型对我国未来中长期的能源与温室气体排放情景进行分析。设计了3个排放情景,介绍了情景的主要参数和结果,以及实现减排所需的技术,同时探讨中国实现低碳情景所需要的发展路径。作为一个经济快速增长国家,中国未来的能源需求和相应的温室气体排放将快速明显增加。中国要实现低碳发展路径,必须从现在就采取适合于低碳发展的政策,着重发展具有国际领先地位的重大清洁能源开发、转换和利用技术,大力发展可再生能源和核电技术,提高公众意识,使低碳生活方式成为普遍行为,逐步实施能源税和碳税。     

Implications of a US electricity standard for final energy demand

This paper analyzes the emissions impact of an emissions intensity standard (metric tons of CO₂ per MWh of electricity) for the US power sector on US final energy demand — i.e. the manufacturing, residential, commercial, and transportation sectors. An emissions intensity standard, although geared towards the power sector, will have implications for these other sectors of the economy through its effect on economy-wide energy prices. Using a hybrid energy-economy simulation model (CIMS), we find the effect on aggregate emissions from final demand to mostly be small. However, after disaggregating final demand, we find significant changes in CO₂e emissions for several of sub-sectors. Given that emissions reductions in final energy demand are needed alongside power sector reductions for the US to achieve deep emissions cuts, our findings provide needed insight as to whether these eventual reductions will be helped or hindered by a US electricity standard.     

Impacts of China's emissions trading schemes on deployment of power generation with carbon capture and storage

The establishment of an emissions trading scheme (ETS) in China creates the potential for a “least cost” solution for achieving the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions required for China to meet its Paris Agreement pledges. China has pledged to reduce CO₂ intensity by 60–65% in 2030 relative to 2005 and to stop the increase in absolute CO₂ emissions around 2030. In this series of studies, we enhance the MIT Economic Projection and Policy Analysis (EPPA) model to include the latest assessments of the costs of power generation technologies in China to evaluate the impacts of different potential ETS pathways on deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology. This paper reports the results from baseline scenarios where power generation prices are assumed to be homogeneous across the country for a given mode of generation. We find that there are different pathways where CCS might play an important role in reducing the emission intensity in China's electricity sector, especially for low carbon intensity targets consistent with the ultimate goals of the Paris Agreement. Uncertainty about the exact technology mix suggests that decision makers should be wary of picking winning technologies, and should instead seek to provide incentives for emission reductions. While it will be challenging to meet the CO₂ intensity target of 550 g/kWh for the electric power sector by 2020, multiple pathways exist for achieving lower targets over a longer timeframe. Our initial analysis shows that carbon prices of 35–40$/tCO₂ make CCS technologies on coal-based generation cost-competitive against other modes of generation and that carbon prices higher than 100$/tCO₂ favor a major expansion of CCS. The next step is to confirm these initial results with more detailed modeling that takes into account granularity across China's energy sector at the provincial level.     

Metal requirements of low-carbon power generation

Today, almost 70% of the electricity is produced from fossil fuels and power generation accounts for over 40% of global CO₂ emissions. If the targets to reduce climate change are to be met, substantial reductions in emissions are necessary. Compared to other sectors emission reductions in the power sector are relatively easy to achieve because it consists mainly of point-sources. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) and the use of low-carbon alternative energy sources are the two categories of options to reduce CO₂ emissions. However, for both options additional infrastructure and equipment is needed. This article compares CO₂ emissions and metal requirements of different low-carbon power generation technologies on the basis of Life Cycle Assessment. We analyze the most critical output (CO₂) and the most critical input (metals) in the same methodological framework. CO₂ emissions and metal requirements are compared with annual global emissions and annual production for different metals. It was found that all technologies are very effective in reducing CO₂ emissions. However, CCS and especially non-fossil technologies are substantially more metal intensive than existing power generation. A transition to a low-carbon based power generation would require a substantial upscaling of current mining of several metals.     

A local-scale low-carbon plan based on the STIRPAT model and the scenario method: The case of Minhang District,Shanghai, China

To achieve a goal of reducing the emission intensity of carbon dioxide in 2020 by 40–45% relative to 2005 in China, the framework for a low-carbon scenario was developed on a small scale in Minhang District, Shanghai. The STIRPAT model was employed to reveal the factors that contribute to CO₂ emissions in this district: the increase of population, affluence and urbanisation level would increase CO₂ emissions, but energy intensity would decrease. Stakeholder involvement was another key component of the framework, and in this case, several rounds of negotiation and feedback resulted in fifteen final scenarios with the estimations of CO₂ emissions in 2015. For the low-carbon development plan of Minhang District, the model considered the actual capacity and development potential of this district, the best scenario combining with the high rates of affluence growing and energy intensity reducing as well as the middle rates of population growth and urbanisation level. The final CO₂ emissions of this scenario were 66.1 Mt in 2015. Based on these results, strategic suggestions have been proposed to reduce future energy intensity in Minhang District through industrial and energy resource structure reformation, lifestyle change and the transportation system improvement in this district.     

Evaluation of potential reductions in carbon emissions in Chinese provinces based on environmental DEA

The estimation of CO₂ emissions reduction potential in China is an important issue for China's energy policy. In this paper, data envelopment analysis (DEA) is used to evaluate the carbon emission performance of 29 Chinese provincial administrative regions (Tibet and Taiwan are not included since of data lack) by computing potential carbon emission reductions for energy conservation technology (ECT) and energy structural adjustment (ESA). The results reveal that ECT promotion and reductions in inter-regional technological disparity would be effective in reducing carbon emissions in technically inefficient regions. However, most of the provincial administrative regions investigated have an irrational energy structure and exhibit an overdependence on coal consumption, so ESA is required to reduce carbon emissions. Therefore, enormous emission reductions could be achieved by promoting ECT, developing renewable energy, increasing the proportion of non-fossil energy, delivering low-carbon energy and applying ESA. Based on the estimation, some policy implications and suitable suggestions are proposed for policy makers.     

Catalyzing strategic transformation to a low-carbon economy: A CCS roadmap for China

China now faces the three hard truths of thirsting for more oil, relying heavily on coal, and ranking first in global carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. Given these truths, two key questions must be addressed to develop a low-carbon economy: how to use coal in a carbon-constrained future? How to increase domestic oil supply to enhance energy security? Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) may be a technological solution that can deal with today's energy and environmental needs while enabling China to move closer to a low-carbon energy future. This paper has been developed to propose a possible CCS roadmap for China. To develop the roadmap, we first explore major carbon capture opportunities in China and then identify critical CCS-enabling technologies, as well as analyze their current status and future prospects. We find that coal gasification or polygeneration in combination with CCS could be a nearly unbeatable combination for China's low-carbon future. Even without CCS, gasification offers many benefits: once coal is gasified into syngas, it can be used for many different purposes including for alternative fuels production, thereby increasing the domestic oil supply and the flexibility of the energy system.     

Carbon capture and storage potential in coal-fired plant in Malaysia—A review

Secure, reliable and affordable energy supplies are necessary for sustainable economic growth, but increases in associated carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, and the associated risk of climate change are a cause of major concern. Experts have projected that the CO₂ emissions related to the energy sector will increase 130% by 2050 in the absence of new policies or supply constraints as a result of increased fossil fuel usage. To address this issue will require an energy technology revolution involving greater energy efficiency, increased renewable energies and nuclear power, and the near-decarbonisation of fossil fuel-based power generation. Nonetheless, fossil fuel usage is expected to continue to dominate global energy supply. The only technology available to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from large-scale fossil fuel usage is carbon capture and storage (CCS), an essential part of the portfolio of technologies that is needed to achieve deep global emission reductions. However, CCS technology faces numerous issues and challenges before it can be successfully deployed. With Malaysia has recently pledged a 40% carbon reduction by 2020 in the Copenhagen 2009 Climate Summit, CCS technology is seen as a viable option in order to achieve its target. Thus, this paper studies the potential and feasibility of coal-fired power plant with CCS technology in Malaysia which includes the choices of coal plants and types of capture technologies possible for implementation.     

低碳经济背景下山东省“十二五”期间经济社会发展情景研究

发展以低能耗、低污染、低排放为特征的低碳经济,是山东省落实科学发展观、推进生态文明建设的必然选择。山东省人均碳排放明显高于全国平均水平,且两者之差几乎逐年增大。通过对山东省人均碳排放与人均GDP、能源强度、产业结构、城市化水平、对外贸易开放度的协整分析,分析结果表明碳排放与各因素之间存在长期均衡关系。另外,从碳排放的驱动因素出发,依据山东省已有的主要规划和中长期目标,以及关于未来经济趋势的分析,设置了基准、强化低碳经济、粗放型经济三种不同的发展情景对山东省"十二五"期间碳排放的演变趋势分析。研究表明2015年碳排放总量的取值区间约为31023.77×104~34461.88×104t,碳排放强度将在2010年0.63t/万元GDP的基础上降低9.98%~18.96%,山东省在采取积极减排措施的情况下基本可以实现碳排放强度降低18%的目标。提出了相关对策建议:优化能源结构,加大技术投入;调整产业结构,转变增长方式;完善政策机制,构建绿色贸易体系。     

低碳发展下的大气污染物和CO2排放情景分析-上海案例研究

我国国民经济正在呈现快速增长态势，由于能源技术相对落后，能源加工及利用效率相对较低，使得我国能源供应面临巨大压力。为探索低碳发展对能源环境的影响，以上海为例，利用LEAP模型对“零方案”情景(BAU)和低碳发展情景下的能源消费及大气污染物排放量进行了预测。研究结果表明，实施低碳发展不仅可有效缓解能源供应压力，明显遏止本地大气污染物排放，改善环境空气质量，而且可减缓CO2排放增长速度。上海案例研究结果显示，低碳发展与末端治理相结合，2020年上海市的能源消费总量将比基础情景减少18％，常规大气污染物和碳排放状况也得到改善，CO2、SO2和PM的排放总量分别比基础情景下2020年的排放量减少了20％、72％和78％。低碳发展对我国中长期能源环境建设具有显著的多重正效应。     

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles—A low-carbon solution for Ireland?

Between 1990 and 2006, the primary energy requirement of the Irish transport sector increased by 166%. Associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have followed a corresponding trajectory, and are responsible—at least in part—for Ireland’s probable failure to meet its Kyoto targets. As in most countries, Ireland’s transport sector is almost totally reliant on oil—a commodity for which Ireland is totally dependent on imports—and therefore vulnerable to supply and price shocks. Conversely, the efficiency and carbon intensity of the Irish electricity supply system have both improved dramatically over the same period, with significant further improvements projected over the coming decade. This paper analyses the prospects for leveraging these changes by increasing the electrification of the Irish transport sector. Specifically, the potential benefits of plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles (PHEV) are assessed, in terms of reducing primary energy requirement (PER) and CO₂ emissions. It is shown that, on a per-km basis, PHEV offer the potential for reductions of 50% or more in passenger car PER and CO₂ intensity. However, the time required to turn over the existing fleet means that a decade or more will be required to significantly impact PER and emissions of the PC fleet.     

安徽省经济发展与碳排放关系分析

以计算得出的安徽省2000～2011年的碳排放量为依据,运用EKC模型对该省经济发展与碳排放量之间的关系进行分析,安徽省碳排放量以及人均碳排放量都在人均GDP为25659.31元时达到理论峰值(极值点),分别为10570×104t和1.54t。安徽省碳排放量与人均GDP之间、人均碳排放量与人均GDP之间存在比较明显的环境库兹涅茨二次曲线特征。为了进一步揭示影响安徽省碳排放量变化的因素,又利用LMDI模型对该省碳排放增长中的总效应、生产规模效应、结构效应及强度效应进行深入分析。结果表明,引起安徽省碳排放增长的主要因素是生产规模效应,强度效应对碳排放起到了一定的抑制作用,而结构效应对碳排放影响不大。鉴于此,建议安徽省应按照低污染、低排放、低能耗的低碳经济理念,调整投资和消费方向,加大对先进节能技术的倾斜性投资,优先选择低碳产业作为未来的发展方向;加大力度优化能源结构,逐步降低高碳产业比重,努力保持非化石能源比重的持续增长态势;发展碳汇项目,促进碳吸收;鼓励新能源、新技术的科技创新,出台相应的激励政策。