Spatial development of hydrogen economy in a low-carbon UK energy system

Hydrogen technologies and infrastructures might play a significant role in meeting ambitious climate and energy policy goals of the UK Government. Nonetheless, studies on hydrogen are either limited in scope in that they do not take into account the relationships with the wider energy system drivers and constraints or do not consider how a hydrogen network might develop geographically. This paper presents a framework where a spatially explicit hydrogen module is embedded in the UK MARKAL Energy System model to explore energy system trade-offs for the production, delivery and use of hydrogen at the sub-national level. A set of illustrative scenarios highlight the competitiveness of hydrogen related infrastructures and technologies as well as imported liquid hydrogen against a stringent emissions reduction target; the effect of emissions reduction trajectory on the development of hydrogen network; the intense resource competition between low carbon hydrogen production and electricity generation, and the importance of economies of scale in hydrogen supply and distribution.     

The role of built environment energy efficiency in a sustainable UK energy economy

Energy efficiency in the built environment can make significant contributions to a sustainable energy economy. In order to achieve this, greater public awareness of the importance of energy efficiency is required. In the short term, new efficient domestic appliances, building technologies, legislation quantifying building plant performance, and improved building regulations to include installed plant will be required. Continuing these improvements in the longer term is likely to see the adoption of small-scale renewable technologies embedded in the building fabric. Internet-based energy services could deliver low-cost building energy management and control to the mass market enabling plant to be operated and maintained at optimum performance levels and energy savings quantified. There are many technology options for improved energy performance of the building fabric and energy systems and it is not yet clear which will prove to be the most economic. Therefore, flexibility is needed in legislation and energy-efficiency initiatives.     

The economic case for low-carbon development in rapidly growing developing world cities: A case study of Palembang,Indonesia

Where costs or risks are higher, evidence is lacking or supporting institutions are less developed, policymakers can struggle to make the case for low-carbon investment. This is especially the case in developing world cities where decision-makers struggle to keep up with the pace and scale of change. Focusing on Palembang in Indonesia, this paper considers the economic case for proactive investment in low-carbon development. We find that a rapidly growing industrial city in a developing country can reduce emissions by 24.1% in 2025, relative to business as usual levels, with investments of USD405.6 million that would reduce energy expenditure in the city by USD436.8 million. Emissions from the regional grid could be reduced by 12.2% in 2025, relative to business as usual trends, with investments of USD2.9 billion that would generate annual savings of USD175 million. These estimates understate the savings from reduced expenditure on energy subsidies and energy infrastructure. The compelling economic case for mainstreaming climate mitigation in this developing country city suggests that the constraints on climate action can be political and institutional rather than economic. There is therefore a need for more effective energy governance to drive the transition to a low-carbon economy.     

Pathways to commercial wind power in the US, Europe and Japan: The role of demonstration projects and field trials in the innovation process

A growing, but little understood area of Government involvement in promoting renewable energy, is the use of demonstration projects and field trials (DTs) as a policy tool. This paper explores the historical role of DTs in the commercialisation of wind turbines. We review information from government, academic and industry sources, together with the newly created Cass Wind DT database, and consider the context, objectives, participants and nature of wind DTs in the EU, US and Japan.Overall, it is difficult to identify the benefits of wind DTs for many of the key actors. Government funding of DTs does not appear to be shaped by coherent or targeted strategic objectives–indeed governments use DTs differently despite similar stated objectives. A common theme has been the involvement of many stakeholders, with local authorities, utilities and operators taking the lead rather than manufacturers. Wind DTs appear to have neither enabled participating manufacturers to become significant global suppliers–with a few exceptions driven by additional financial and legislative support from national governments-nor to have established a dominant design. The major benefit of wind DTs appears to have been ‘learning by using’ for utilities and wind farm operators, reducing operational costs.     

Patterns of technological innovation and evolution in the energy sector: A patent-based approach

Given the ever-increasing pace and complexity of technological innovation in the energy sector, monitoring technological changes has become of strategic importance. One of the most common techniques for technology monitoring is patent analysis, which enables the identification of technological trends over time. However, few previous studies have carried out patent analysis in the energy sector. This study aims to explore patterns of innovation and of evolution in energy technologies, particularly focusing on similarities and differences across technologies. For this purpose, we first defined the relevant energy technologies and extracted the associated patent data from the United States Patents and Trademark Office (USPTO) and then adopted six patent indices and developed six patent maps to analyze their innovation characteristics. We then clustered energy technologies with similar characteristics, so defining innovation categories, and analyzed the changes in these characteristics over time to define their evolution categories. As one of the few attempts to investigate the overall trends in the energy sector's innovation and evolution, this study is expected to help develop an in-depth understanding of the energy industry, which will be useful in establishing technology strategies and policy in this rapidly changing sector.     

Individual environmental behavior: A key role in building low-carbon communities in China

People’s social behavior, especially environmental behavior, has a great impact on energy consumption and carbon emission. This paper explores both categories of individual factors (e.g., values, habits, education, motivation, etc.) and social factors (e.g., institution, infrastructure, encouragement, etc.), to clarify the correlation between them and their sub-factors. Low-carbon campus is a representative type of low-carbon community which is less difficult to build than other communities because university students are well-educated and, to some extent, are more environmental aware and more willing to change their behaviors. The energy-saving and environment-friendly policies implemented on campus are collected and overviewed in this paper. Additionally, the leaders and employees from the related administration departments are interviewed, and the data of electricity amount and water usage are analyzed and a well-designed questionnaire is handed out in a survey. The survey investigates the environmental knowledge, energy use habits, attitude toward low-carbon transformation, comments on the current institution and so on. The results show that different groups of students have varied levels of environmental knowledge, energy use habits, and attitude toward low-carbon campus management. To improve energy conservation and cut carbon emission radically, advices on building low-carbon community are also proposed including professional curriculums of environmental protection, economic initiatives, effect management, good communications, and sound infrastructures and facilities.     

Socio-geographic perception in the diffusion of innovation: Solar energy technology in Sri Lanka

Understandings of the diffusion process have tended to emphasize either the adoption perspective, which focuses on individual characteristics, or the market perspective, which focuses on institutional context. In this paper we bring these two perspectives together by recognizing that people are embedded in socio-geographic contexts that affect their perceptions of their situations, which in turn shape the innovativeness of individuals and places. Focusing on the diffusion of Solar Home Systems (SHS) in Sri Lanka, we explore the role of context at the village (by comparing adoption rates among villages) and individual (by comparing time-to-adoption among household decision makers in a case-study village) scales. At the village scale, we find that expectations of government policy based on interactions related to ethnicity and politicians’ previous power-grid connection promises are significant drivers of SHS adoption, along with perceived tolerance levels in the village for non-conformist behavior. Among household decision makers within the case-study village, we analyze relative adoption time and the duration of the innovation-decision process and find that perceiving strong village-level social control inhibits SHS adoption decision making. The results add to innovation diffusion theory and provide policy recommendations for agencies promoting solar energy in developing countries.     

Holding a candle to innovation in concentrating solar power technologies: A study drawing on patent data

Improved understanding of the innovative pathways of renewable energy technologies is vital if we are to make the transition to a low carbon economy. This study presents new evidence on innovation and industry dynamics in concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies. Though CSP is undergoing a renaissance, existing innovation studies have explored innovative activity in solar technologies in general, ignoring the major differences between solar photovoltaic and CSP technologies. This study, based on patent data, examines the level and dynamics of innovative activity in CSP between 1978 and 2004.     

Assessing fuel cell vehicle innovation and the role of policy in Japan,Korea, and China

Despite intensive public and private research efforts into developing fuel cell vehicles (FCV), the global number of FCV remains small and they are unavailable for commercial purchase. We use an in-depth literature review, and bibliometric and patent analysis to analyse FCV technology within the conceptual framework of Rogers' innovation diffusion curve and suggest how the particular innovation systems and policies adopted in three key Asian car-manufacturing countries (Japan, Korea, and China) have influenced the development of FCV. Such analysis may capture trends not indicated by technical measures such as increases in efficiency or decreases in unit cost. Although Japan continues to lead in terms of number of patents and quality of academic research, Korea and China have been successful in developing fuel cell programs. Korean academics patent more frequently than their Japanese and Chinese peers, producing 18% of FC patents, with 16% of those filed also naming a private company. The 2008 financial crisis and ongoing economic uncertainty appears to have had some effect on patent activity whilst academic research appears unaffected. Diffusion curve analysis suggests that FCVs have not reached technological maturity.     

Policy analysis for energy efficiency in the built environment in Spain

Energy efficiency is considered one of the most cost effective ways to enhance security of energy supply and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. According to Europe's Energy Efficiency Plan, the biggest energy savings potential in the EU lies in the built environment. However, the many barriers to energy efficiency have prevented the implementation of the existing potential so far. This paper evaluates the existing policy instruments aimed at energy efficiency in buildings in Spain as laid down in the 2nd National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP). The results show that the current policy package is insufficient to yield the existing energy savings potential in this sector. As much of the savings potential can be found in existing buildings and realization of this potential very much relies on voluntary action, the renovation sector is in need of an appropriate financial framework that mobilizes sufficient public and private financial resources, and transparent and efficient mechanisms to ensure the return on investment and payments from those who benefit from the renovation. Such financial framework needs to be supported by a regulatory framework that is tuned to existing buildings and an organizational framework that effectively connects the different policy layers in Spain.     

What are the factors that could influence the future of work with regard to energy systems and the built environment?

The aim of this paper is to examine which factors in energy systems and the built environment could influence the future of work. In addition, it looks at trends in relation to corporate demands for space and its specifications, and considers what the scope is for integrating business and industry within the dwelling landscape. It seeks to consider these questions on a 50-year time horizon.     

Linking energy efficiency and innovation practices: Empirical evidence from the foundry sector

The Europe 2020 strategy currently promotes energy efficiency and innovation through disconnected targets focusing on either energy or R&D. Similar policies indicate that in practice, these two concepts are usually perceived as mutually exclusive. Furthermore, evidence in the literature regarding the relationship between R&D and energy efficiency is still highly limited. This exploratory study aims to address this gap by investigating the link between innovation practices and energy efficiency through a multiple case study of 30 foundries in Northern Italy. We analysed the firms' innovativeness, measured by internal R&D and Open Innovation practices (inbound and outbound), and energy efficiency, measured by specific energy consumption, level of adoption of energy-efficient technologies and barriers to energy efficiency. The results seem to show that those foundries complementing internal R&D with inbound practices have a higher level of energy efficiency, a higher level of adoption of available technologies, and a lower perception of barriers to efficiency improvements. This finding suggests that diversifying innovation practices could lead to better performance with respect to all three indicators of energy efficiency analysed. This study contributes to understanding how more innovative firms can be more energy efficient, providing interesting highlights for managers and policymakers.     

A review on the natural gas potential of Pakistan for the transition to a low-carbon future

Natural gas is the world’s fastest growing and widely used fossil fuel which can be targeted for transitioning to a low-carbon future. Pakistan was ranked at seventh position among the utmost harmfully affected countries by climate change. It is, therefore, important to develop an effective energy policy toward the reduction of greenhouse gases in the country. This study evaluates the Pakistan’s natural gas industry development by reviewing reserves, production, consumption, infrastructures, and natural gas agreements in place. The total proven natural gas reserve of Pakistan is estimated to be 0.5 Tcm by the end of 2016. There are many active fields in Pakistan among which Sui gas reservoir is the largest. Currently, Pakistan’s natural gas industry is well matured with average size reserves, production capacity, and advanced and organized infrastructure for transmission and distribution network. Therefore, natural gas can be used to feed different sectors of the country, to decrease the financial burden of importing oil, and to reduce CO₂ emissions. However, increasing the gap of demand–supply for natural gas in the future, declining the average gas reserves, and postponing the gas import may challenge the natural gas industry, climate, and performance of Pakistan’s economy. Thus, these concerns must be addressed to help the natural gas industry for an easy transition to a low-carbon future.     

Shaping and exploiting technological opportunities: The case of technology in Taiwan

It is difficult to design, implement, and manage renewable energy projects in Taiwan without a provision for capacity building enabling the application of modern technologies and techniques. The techno-economic potential of renewable energy technologies (RETs) is substantial. However, it is not certain that economically viable RETs will be utilized since this is greatly influenced by social, institutional, and political factors. To move from activities that enhance the current fossil fuel-based lock-ins and create an environment that increases the chance of successful transfer and diffusion of RETs, the Sunshine Power Cities project was established in southern Taiwan in 2005. This project was initiated by the Bureau of Energy and the Ministry of Economic Affairs. Here, a detailed evaluation of the project is carried out by retrospectively analyzing whether or not it strengthened local renewable energy innovations to develop Sunshine Cities as part of the strategy to help their cities gain RET status and in the process construct shared national and city identities. This evaluation shows that this renewable energy (RE) program strengthens most key processes in an innovation system conducive to technology transfer.     

Mobilising community action towards a low-carbon future: Opportunities and challenges for local government in the UK

Over the last decade the important role that local authorities can play in catalyzing community action on climate change has been repeatedly emphasised by the UK Government. The paper examines this policy context and explores the options available to local authorities in terms of reaching and engaging their communities. The type of progressive response shown by some UK local authorities is illustrated with empirical evidence gathered through a study conducted in the London Borough of Islington focusing on their recently established ‘Green Living Centre’. The results confirm interest in this major council-led community initiative, with positive attitudes expressed by the majority of those questioned in terms of the advice and information available. However, it is also clear that many participants had preexisting pro-environmental attitudes and behavioural routines. Results from a broader sample of Islington residents indicate a substantial challenge in reaching the wider community, where enthusiasm for sustainability change and interest in this type of scheme were more mixed. The prospect for local government in addressing this challenge – and their ability to trigger and capitalize upon concepts of social change at the community level towards a lower carbon future – is discussed in the final part of the paper.     

Necessary but not sufficient: the role of energy efficiency in industrial sector low-carbon transformation

As the primary means for growth and development over the past two centuries, industry has played a central role in generating our current Anthropocene. The increasing impacts of climate change bring industry to the fore as the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and as a potential manufacturer of transformational technologies and infrastructure. While energy efficiency improvements are driving industrial sector emissions and cost reductions, additional switching away from fossil fuels and capture of carbon emissions is needed for climate stabilization.     

Towards a low-carbon future in China's building sector—A review of energy and climate models forecast

This article investigates the potentials of energy saving and greenhouse gases emission mitigation offered by implementation of building energy efficiency policies in China. An overview of existing literature regarding long-term energy-demand and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission forecast scenarios is presented. Energy consumption in buildings could be reduced by 100–300 million tons of oil equivalent (mtoe) in 2030 compared with the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario, which means that 600–700 million metric tons of CO₂ emissions could be saved by implementing appropriate energy policies within an adapted institutional framework. The main energy-saving potentials in buildings can be achieved by improving a building's thermal performance and district heating system efficiency. The analyses also reveal that the energy interchange systems are effective especially in the early stage of penetration. Our analysis on the reviewed models suggests that more ambitious efficiency improvement policies in both supply- and demand-side as well as the carbon price should be taken into account in the policy scenarios to address drastic reduction of CO₂ emission in the building sector to ensure climate security over the next decades.     

Hydrogen energy's key contributions to the sustainable energy mix of a low-carbon future in Nigeria

During the period between 2001 and 2007, oil prices increased from $20 to $140 per barrel, making oil prices higher than at any period in the twenty-first century. This was invariably good in gross domestic product terms for Nigeria which most regrettably, has continued to be a monoproduct oil economy since oil production started in the 1960s, with no value addition to the crude oil export. Indeed, the country still imports refined products to meet her domestic requirements, over 50 years after the first oil wells were drilled at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta region. Nigeria's proven oil reserves are reported as 36.2 billion barrels as at the end of 2010, with an R/P ratio of 42.4 and contributing 2.7% of world oil output (http://www.bp.com/assets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2011/STAGING/local_assets/pdf/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_report_2011.pdf). While estimates indicate that the world has 43.44 years left of this non-renewable resource (http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2008/STAGING/local_assets/2010_downloads/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_report_2010.pdf); with all assumptions associated with such estimates, upstream resource investment continues at the exploration end, and in Nigeria, new findings are frequently being announced which make the total resource estimate to be rather dynamic, as expected. An envisaged future built on hydrogen energy is known as the hydrogen economy since it has impacts on the economy, environment and society. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of ‘raw materials’, some of which are abundantly available in Nigeria and they include natural gas, coal, biomass, agricultural and municipal wastes, and ocean water using energy from the sun and the wind. In light of the ongoing developments in the energy sector in Nigeria, the focus of this present review is to analyse the current energy situation with a view to estimating the potentials and implications of a hydrogen economy for Nigeria. Several issues and constraints are considered such as population growth, urbanisation, the transportation sector, production of hydrogen from fossil fuels as a short-term measure to developing a hydrogen infrastructure and ultimately clean production of hydrogen from renewable energy sources. This paper describes a future hydrogen economy from a climate change perspective that is based on production processes that have zero or near zero-carbon emissions to the environment. The economic impact aspects are, however, not addressed in this work. Nonetheless, the review provides a detailed and realistic assessment of the prospects of a hydrogen economy for a future low-carbon growth path for Nigeria.