Energy embodied in the international trade of China: An energy input–output analysis

Growing international trade has not only positively affected the People’s Republic of China’s (China’s) economic development, but also expanded the exportation of energy embodied in goods during their production. This energy flow out will pose risks to China’s rational utilization of natural resources as well as environmental protection. In this paper, we evaluate the energy embodied in goods produced in China during 1992–2005 and use input–output structural decomposition analysis to identify five key factors causing the changes of energy embodied in exports. (Direct primary energy efficiency, primary energy consumption structure, structure of intermediate inputs, structure of exports, and scale of exports.) For the three sub-periods of 1992–1997, 1997–2002, and 2002–2005, results show that China is a net exporter of energy, and the energy embodied in exports tends to increase over time. The expanding total volume of exports and increasing exports of energy-intensive goods tend to enlarge the energy embodied in exports within all three sub-periods, but these driving forces were offset by a considerable improvement of energy efficiency and changes in primary energy consumption structure from 1992 to 2002 and the effects of structure of intermediate input only in the sub-period from 1992 to 1997. From 2002 to 2005, the sharp augmentation of energy embodied in exports was driven by all the five factors. Our research has practical implications for the Chinese economy. Results of this study suggest that the energy embodied in trade should receive special attentions in energy policies design to limit the energy resource out-flow and pollution generation.     

The role of hydrogen energy development in the Korean economy: An input–output analysis

Korea has been developing hydrogen energy technology to enhance its energy security. The Hydrogen Energy R&D Center established by the Korean government invested about 100 billion Korean won (KRW) into the development of hydrogen energy technology from 2003 to 2012. This study uses input–output (I–O) analysis, along with the scenario–based exogenous specification method, to investigate the effect of hydrogen energy technology investment on the Korean economy for the period 2020–2040. We focus on two perspectives: (1) the sectoral linkage effect and (2) the sectoral impacts of hydrogen energy supply investments. The overall results reveal that the hydrogen sector can be characterized as intermediate primary production because of its high backward and forward linkage effects. By 2040, total production in the hydrogen sector under two scenarios will be 13,484 and 2979 billion KRW, respectively. This study is a pioneering study into the assessment of the economy–wide effects of Korea's hydrogen energy industries.     

The impact on chinese economic growth and energy consumption of the Global Financial Crisis: An input–output analysis

The dependence on foreign trade increased sharply in china, and therefore Chinese economy is obviously export-oriented. The Global Financial Crisis will impact the Chinese economic growth violently. Chinese government has recently adopted some effective measures to fight against the Global Financial Crisis. The most important measure is the 4 trillion Yuan ($586 billion) stimulus plan which was announced on November 9, 2008. This paper discusses the influence on energy consumption and economic growth of Global Financial Crisis and the stimulus plan against it by input–output analysis. The results show that the fall of exports caused by the Global Financial Crisis will lead to a decrease of 7.33% in GDP (Gross Domestic Production) and a reduction of 9.21% in energy consumption; the stimulus plan against the Global Financial Crisis will lead to an increase of 4.43% in economic growth and an increase of 1.83% in energy consumption; In the Global Financial Crisis, energy consumption per unit GDP will fall in China.     

Optimizing production with energy and GHG emission constraints in Greece: An input–output analysis

Under its Kyoto and EU obligations, Greece has committed to a greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions increase of at most 25% compared to 1990 levels, to be achieved during the period 2008–2012. Although this restriction was initially regarded as being realistic, information derived from GHG emissions inventories shows that an increase of approximately 28% has already taken place between 1990 and 2005, highlighting the need for immediate action. This paper explores the reallocation of production in Greece, on a sector-by-sector basis, in order to meet overall demand constraints and GHG emissions targets. We pose a constrained optimization problem, taking into account the Greek environmental input–output matrix for 2005, the amount of utilized energy and pollution reduction options. We examine two scenarios, limiting fluctuations in sectoral production to at most 10% and 15%, respectively, compared to baseline (2005) values. Our results indicate that (i) GHG emissions can be reduced significantly with relatively limited effects on GVP growth rates, and that (ii) greater cutbacks in GHG emissions can be achieved as more flexible production scenarios are allowed.     

Replication and robustness analysis of ‘energy and economic growth in the USA: A multivariate approach’

We replicate Stern (1993), who argues and empirically demonstrates that it is necessary (i) to use quality-adjusted energy use and (ii) to include capital and labor as control variables in order to find Granger causality from energy use to GDP. Though we could not access the original dataset, we can verify the main original inferences using data that are as close as possible to the original. We analyze the robustness of the original findings to an alternative estimation approach, alternative definitions of variables, and alternative model specifications for both the (almost) original time span (1949–1990) and an extended time span (1949–2015). p-values tend to be substantially smaller if energy use is quality adjusted rather than measured by total joules and if capital is included. Including labor has mixed results. These findings tend to largely support Stern's (1993) two main conclusions and emphasize the importance of accounting for changes in the energy mix in time series modeling of the energy-GDP relationship and controlling for other factors of production. We also discuss how the inclusion of the original author in designing the replication study using a pre-analysis plan can help to counterbalance the incentive of replicating authors to disconfirm major findings of the original article to increase the probability of getting published.     

Input–output analysis of alternative policies implemented on the energy activities: An application for Catalonia

The aim of this paper is to analyze the economic impact of alternative policies implemented on the energy activities of the Catalan production system. Specifically, we analyze the effects of a tax on intermediate energy uses, a reduction in intermediate energy demand, and a tax on intermediate uses combined with a reduction in intermediate energy demand. The methodology involves two versions of the input–output price model: a competitive price formulation and a mark-up price formulation. The input–output price framework will make it possible to evaluate how the alternative measures modify production prices, consumption prices, private real income, and intermediate energy uses. The empirical application is for the Catalan economy and uses economic data for the year 2001. The combination of a tax on energy uses and an improvement in the energy efficiency of the production system is a measure that accomplishes both economic and environmental goals, since it has no effects on prices, it has a positive effect on private real income and, finally, energy consumption is considerably reduced.     

Pinch analysis for recycling thermal energy in the Cu–Cl cycle

Due to lower temperature requirements than other thermochemical cycles, the copper-chlorine (Cu–Cl) cycle is one of the most promising cycles for hydrogen production. The cycle consists of a number of endothermic and exothermic processes. The overall efficiency of the cycle can be improved by recovering as much heat as possible from the exothermic processes within the cycle and minimizing the net heat input to the cycle. In this paper, a pinch methodology is used to determine the minimum energy requirement for the overall Cu–Cl cycle, if heat recovery within the cycle is optimized. All heating and cooling flows (actual or potential) are presented as temperature-energy flow profiles and combined into composite curves for the entire cycle. Additional equipment and the overall thermal layout of the cycle are also investigated.     

The embodied energy and environmental emissions of construction projects in China: An economic input–output LCA model

A complete understanding of the resource consumption, embodied energy, and environmental emissions of civil projects in China is difficult due to the lack of comprehensive national statistics. To quantitatively assess the energy and environmental impacts of civil construction at a macro-level, this study developed a 24 sector environmental input–output life-cycle assessment model (I–O LCA) based on 2002 Chinese national economic and environmental data. The model generates an economy-wide inventory of energy use and environmental emissions. Estimates based on the level of economic activity related to planned future civil works in 2015 are made. Results indicate that the embodied energy of construction projects accounts for nearly one-sixth of the total economy's energy consumption in 2007, and may account for approximately one-fifth of the total energy use by 2015. This energy consumption is dominated by coal and oil consumptions. Energy-related emissions are the main polluters of the country's atmosphere and environment. If the industry's energy use and manufacturing techniques remain the same as in 2002, challenges to the goals for total energy consumption in China will appear in the next decade. Thus, effective implementation of efficient energy technologies and regulations are indispensable for achieving China's energy and environmental quality goals.     

Policy drivers for improving electricity end-use efficiency in the USA: an economic–engineering analysis

This paper estimates the economically achievable potential for improving electricity end-use efficiency in the USA from a sample of policies. The approach involves identifying a series of energy efficiency policies tackling market failures and then examining their impacts and cost-effectiveness using Georgia Institute of Technology's version of the National Energy Modeling System. By estimating the policy-driven electricity savings and the associated levelized costs, a policy supply curve for electricity efficiency is produced. Each policy is evaluated individually and in an integrated policy scenario to examine policy dynamics. The integrated policy scenario demonstrates significant achievable potential: 261 TWh (6.5 %) of electricity savings in 2020 and 457 TWh (10.2 %) in 2035. All 11 policies examined were estimated to have lower levelized costs than the average electricity retail price. Levelized costs range from 0.5 to 8.1 cents/kWh, with the regulatory and information policies tending to be most cost-effective. Policy impacts on the power sector, carbon dioxide emissions, and energy intensity are also estimated to be significant.     

The impact of clean energy investments on the Greek economy: An input–output analysis (2010–2020)

The aim of this paper is twofold: first, to calculate the “green” energy investments, by industrial sector, that Greece would need in order to satisfy a number of energy and environmental targets adopted in the context of the European Commission’s energy and climate change package; and second, to calculate the macro-economic impacts of these “green” investments on production and employment in the Greek economy. To this end, the input–output analysis has been exploited for estimating the direct, indirect and induced macroeconomic effects associated with the implementation of selected energy conservation measures, the promotion of renewable energy technologies, etc. Our findings show that the required investments would reach the amount of €47.9 billion, over the period 2010–2020. These investments will result in an average annual increase of the national product by €9.4 billion, creating simultaneously 108,000 full-time equivalent jobs for the entire period under consideration. The employment generated per €1 million investment is relatively higher in energy saving projects in buildings and transport in comparison with the development of RES in power generation sector.     

LMDI decomposition analysis of energy consumption in Andalusia (Spain) during 2003–2012: the energy efficiency policy implications

The aim of this paper is to analyse the changes in final energy consumption in Andalusia through logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) decomposition analysis during the period 2003–2012. The results lead us to conclude that a reduction of final energy (FE) consumption of 1 % took place as a result of a diminishing in structural effect by 11 % and an increase in the activity effect and intensity effect by 7.4 and 3.5 %, respectively. Chain-linked LMDI decomposition shows the existence of two sub-periods, with a turning point in 2008. The first period, coinciding to a great extent with the Andalusian Energy Plan 2003–2006 (PLEAN), showed an increase in final energy consumption, mostly due to the activity effect but also to the intensity effect. The second period, coinciding with the implementation of the Andalusian Sustainable Energy Plan 2007–2013 (PASENER), shows a reduction in the activity, structure and intensity effects. The results allow us to conclude that many of the energy efficiency measures, implemented through the PASENER, are related to sectors that experienced a decline in energy consumption due to the intensity effect, such as transport, primary and service sectors. Additionally, although they were included in PASENER, more policy attention should be given to the energy transformation, residential and industrial sectors which increased the demand for energy due to the intensity effect during this period. Finally, the energy-saving behaviour of economic agents due to the economic downturn should also be considered as an explanation for the diminishing in energy consumption during this sub-period.     

How fast can businesses in the new energy sector grow? An analysis of critical factors

For the new energy technology markets to grow, demand, prices, and business conditions need to be in balance. It is not just declining prices and increasing volumes that are important, but the business in the new energy sector also needs to be healthy, which is not always the case at present. We have analyzed the ability of businesses in the new energy sector to invest in new production capacity, which influences the total volume growth. Using the self-financeable growth rate (SGR) as an indicator, a declining trend was found among PV and wind power manufacturers. The prospects of initiating new investments through returns from operations are poor or negligible at present, which is explained by tougher competition, shrinking public support, and new entrants, among others. Reducing the cost of sales would be the most effective way to improve the growth prospects, though increasing revenues, e.g., through higher product prices, comes close to achieving the same result. Market measures such as consolidation, rationalization, better asset use, improving efficiency, etc. are equally important. The analysis results imply a growth limit of ca. 15–25% per year with present market conditions, which may also be a more permanent level, supported by findings from technology diffusion and growth model studies. The results suggest that it is not self-evident that the new energy technologies will meet the future goals set for these in the climate and energy policy strategies, unless policymakers and decision makers properly address the issue of restoring and securing sound business conditions.     

2 W power source based on air–hydrogen polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells and water–aluminum hydrogen micro-generator

The article presents an attempt to design the 2 W power source (PS) based on air–hydrogen fuel cells (FCs) and water–aluminium micro-generator as a hydrogen supply (WAHMG). Experiments concern FC’s breathing in compact arrangement and combined performance of FC + WAHMG. It turned out to be necessary to build a fan into FC stack provided the rotation speed of fan depends on the FC current. The highest power density of FC at optimal speed of air blowing was 101 mW cm⁻². Electrical energy produced by FC was about 1.2–1.8 Wh per gram of Al in micro-generator. This value depends on the total yield of hydrogen in WAHMG and hydrogen losses due to purges.     

A comprehensive economic analysis method for selecting the PV array structure in grid–connected photovoltaic systems

In grid–connected photovoltaic (GCPV) systems, applying a solar tracker results in a higher energy production level. However, this does not necessarily mean a greater profit due to the excess of generation selling, since the capital and maintenance costs increase as well. In this paper, a comprehensive economic analysis method for selecting the PV array structure type has been proposed. To this end, a precise method to compute the yearly generated electrical energy (solar converted energy) has been presented by applying the global radiation relation between different structures, i.e. fixed, single axis (vertical and horizontal) and dual axis trackers. Also, the simple and yet accurate efficiency model and power relation are used for solar inverter and panel, respectively. The analysis is accomplished by determining the economic parameters, including net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and payback period time (PBT) for all PV structures with the same electrical energy generation or profit. Due to the results simplicity and robustness in different economic conditions, the same energy production scenario is chosen in this paper. In accordance with this assumption, PV panel, inverter and tracker sizes and net present costs (NPC) are determined. Since the net present benefit (NPB) for all structures is equal, the lowest NPC is considered the most economic choice. The performance of the suggested algorithm is evaluated through a commercial dual axis GCPV system simulation. Moreover, in order to determine the best suited economic parameters, a sensitivity analysis has also been carried out in the process.     

A new look at the FDI–income–energy–environment nexus: Dynamic panel data analysis of ASEAN

The main focus of this paper is to estimate the effects of foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows, income and energy consumption on CO₂ emissions using panel data of five ASEAN countries over 1981–2010. The results based on the pooled mean group (PMG) estimator of dynamic panels show that FDI tends to increase CO₂ emissions, supporting evidence of the pollution haven hypothesis. We also find that income and energy consumption have a detrimental impact on reducing CO₂ emissions.     

Indicators of European public research in hydrogen and fuel cells—An input–output analysis

A prerequisite of any coordinated research activity is a comparison of the current status of research in the countries in question and a means to monitor the progress in particular sectors. Analysis of indicators of research in different countries allows comparison of the research undertaken. This paper compares input and output indicators of public research in hydrogen and fuel cells (H&FC) both within Europe and between Europe and the US, Japan and China. Overall the combined public H&FC research budget for the EU25 countries, associated states and accession countries was €276M$€276\mathrm{M}$ in 2005, slightly higher than in the US, but lower than in Japan. An analysis of research outputs indicates that European competitive advantage is being lost to China and the US. Greater and more effective research coordination as well as more targeted allocation of research funds are proposed as potential solutions.     

Why did China’s energy intensity increase during 1998–2006: Decomposition and policy analysis

Despite the fact that China’s energy intensity has continuously decreased during the 1980s and mostly 1990s, the decreasing trend has reversed since 1998 and the past few years have witnessed rapid increase in China’s energy intensity. We firstly conduct an index decomposition analysis to identify the key forces behind the increase. It is found that: (1) the high energy demand in industrial sectors is mainly attributed to expansion of production scale, especially in energy-intensive industries; (2) energy saving mainly comes from efficiency improvement, with energy-intensive sectors making the largest contribution; and (3) a heavier industrial structure also contributes to the increase. This study also makes the first attempt to bridge the quantitative decomposition analysis with qualitative policy analyses and fill the gap between decomposition results and policy relevance in previous work. We argue that: (1) energy efficiency improvement in energy-intensive sectors is mainly due to the industrial policies that have been implemented in the past few years; (2) low energy prices have directly contributed to high industrial energy consumption and indirectly to the heavy industrial structure. We provide policy suggestions in the end.