Sensor-Based Automation of Irrigation on Bermudagrass, during Wet Weather Conditions

New technologies could improve irrigation efficiency of turfgrass, promoting water conservation and reducing environmental impacts. The objectives of this research were to quantify irrigation water use and to evaluate turf quality differences between (1) time-based scheduling with and without a rain sensor (RS); (2) a time-based schedule compared to a soil moisture sensor (SMS)-based irrigation system; and (3) different commercially available SMS systems. The experimental area consisted of common bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.] plots (3.7?m×3.7?m), located in Gainesville, Fla. The monitoring period took place from July 20 to December 14, 2004, and from March 25 to August 31, 2005. SMS-based treatments consisted of irrigating one, two, or seven days a week, each with four different commercial SMS brands. Time-based treatments with or without RS and a nonirrigated treatment were also implemented. Significant differences in turfgrass quality among treatments were not detected due to the sustained wet weather conditions during the testing periods. The treatment with the rain sensor resulted in 34% less water applied than that without the rain sensor (2-WORS) treatment. Most SMS brands recorded irrigation water savings compared to 2-WORS, ranging from 69 to 92% for three of four SMSs tested, depending on the irrigation frequency. Therefore, SMS systems represent a promising technology because of the water savings that they can achieve during wet weather conditions while maintaining acceptable turfgrass quality.     

Irrigation Scheduling for Green Bell Peppers Using Capacitance Soil Moisture Sensors

Vegetable production areas are intensively managed with high inputs of fertilizer and irrigation. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the interaction between N-fertilizer rates and irrigation scheduling using soil moisture sensor irrigation controllers (SMS) on yield, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) of bell pepper cultivated under plastic mulch and drip irrigation. Treatments included three irrigation scheduling and three N-rates (176, 220, and 330 kg/ha). Irrigation treatments were: SS10, water application controlled by SMS-based irrigation set at 10% volumetric water content (VWC) which was allotted five irrigation windows daily and bypassed events if the soil VWC exceeded the established threshold; SS12, threshold set at 12% VWC; and TIME, control with irrigation being applied once a day similar to grower irrigation management. Marketable yields ranged between 16 and 29 Mg/ha. The SMS treatments reduced the applied irrigation in 7 to 62% compared to TIME treatment without reducing yield. The treatments SS10 and SS12 reduced nitrate leaching by 25 to 73% compared to TIME treatment.     

Expanding Disk Rain Sensor Performance and Potential Irrigation Water Savings

Rain sensors (RSs) appear to be a useful tool for water conservation at a relatively low cost. However, little evidence related to RS performance and/or reliability exists. The objectives of this experiment were to: (1) evaluate two RS types with respect to the following: Accuracy of their set point, number of irrigation cycles bypassed, and duration in bypass mode; (2) quantify the amount of water that RSs could save; and (3) estimate their payback period. Mini-click (MC) and wireless rain-click (WL) rain sensor models were monitored. For the WL treatment, the dry-out ventilation windows were set half open, and for the MC treatments, rainfall set points of 3, 13, and 25?mm were established. On average, all treatments responded close to their set points with the WL, 3?mm MC, 13?mm MC, and 25?mm MC treatments averaging 1.4, 3.4, 10.0, and 24.5?mm, respectively. However, some replicates showed variable behavior. The number of times that these sensors shut off irrigation (81, 43, 30, and 8 times, respectively) was inversely proportional to the magnitude of their set point, with potential water savings following a similar trend. Where water costs exceed $0.53 per cubic meter ($2.00 per thousand gallons), the payback period is less than a year for WL and MCs set at 13?mm or less.     

Residential Water Savings Associated with Satellite-Based ET Irrigation Controllers

A mixed landscape irrigation study was conducted on 27 residential sites in Las Vegas to quantify water savings associated with satellite irrigation controllers. Seventeen sites were equipped with evapotranspiration-based (ET) satellite irrigation controllers and ten sites were designated as control sites and retrofitted with nonET-based irrigation controllers. Results showed that 13 of 16 ET-based controller sites saved water compared to four of ten of the nonET-based control sites. When all control sites were grouped together, a statistical difference occurred between the control and ET-based groups (ET-based controller=+20% savings) (p<0.05). Results from this study indicated that water savings were not because of deficit irrigations at the expense of the landscape plant material. Eighty-one percent of the variation in the total outdoor water use could be described by the total turfgrass area at each site. Such results would suggest that turfgrass limitations have merit, if the grass being restricted is tall fescue growing in an arid environment.     

Effect of Preharvest Deficit Irrigation on Second Crop Watermelon Grown in an Extremely Hot Climate

As a second crop, watermelons (Citrullus vulgaris, Crimson sweet) were grown in 2003 and 2004 in the Sanliurfa-Harran Plain in southeastern Turkey to determine the effect of preharvest water stress on fruit yield, quality (i.e., soluble solids contents and fruit size), leaf temperature, and some other physiological parameters. Preharvest drip irrigation treatments included (1) complete irrigation cutoff, dry (D); (2) full irrigation based on replenishment of soil water depleted from 0 to 90?cm soil profile (C); (3) 75% full irrigation (IR1); (4) 50% full irrigation (IR2); and (5) 25% full irrigation (IR3) with 3-day irrigation interval. Treatment plots received the same level of irrigation water until the fruit formation stage, except for Treatment D. Then, different water stress levels were imposed on treatment plots. Irrigation water applied to the five respective treatments were 636, 511, 395, 245, and 120?mm in 2003 and 648, 516, 403, 252, and 127?mm in 2004. Results indicated that fruit yield was significantly lowered by reduced water rates. The seasonal average yield response factor (ky) for both years was 1.0, but it was 0.97 for 2003 and 0.98 for 2004. The highest marketable fruit yield, obtained from treatment C, was 32.4?Mg?ha?1 in 2003 and 37.1?Mg?ha?1 in 2004. D, IR2, and IR3 treatments reduced most measured parameters, except for soluble solids contents (SSC). Both the fruit size and SSC were significantly affected by late-season irrigation management; individual fruit weights were significantly reduced, whereas SSC increased in the IR2 and IR3 treatments compared to the control values. The writers’ results clearly indicated that reduced preharvest irrigation was detrimental. Water use efficiency (WUE) was significantly affected by irrigation treatments. Even a 25% reduction in the irrigation amount caused a 15% reduction in marketable yield. This indicates that deficit irrigation in the ripening stage significantly increased water use efficiency. The study demonstrated that a moderate deficit irrigation, which is replenishment up to 50% of soil water depleted in the root zone, can be successfully used to improve WUE under semiarid climatic conditions.     

Residential Irrigation Water Use in Central Florida

Automatic inground irrigation is a common option for residential homeowners desiring high-quality landscapes in Florida. However, rapid growth is straining water supplies in some areas of the state. The first objective of this study was to document residential irrigation water use in the Central Florida ridge region on typical residential landscapes (T1). The second objective was to determine if scheduling irrigation by setting controllers based on historical evapotranspiration (ET) (T2) and reducing the percentage of turf area combined with setting the controllers based on historical ET (T3) would lead to reductions in irrigation water use. The time frame of this study was 30?months beginning in January 2003. Irrigation accounted for 64% of the residential water use volume over all homes monitored during this project. The T1 homes had an average monthly water use of 149?mm/month. Compared to the T1 homes, T2 resulted in a 30% reduction (105?mm/month), and T3 had a 50% reduction (74?mm/month) in average monthly water use. Average monthly water use was significantly different (p<0.001) across the three irrigation treatments. Setting the irrigation controllers to apply water according to seasonal demand resulted in significantly less irrigation water applied. In addition, increasing the proportion of landscape area from 23% (T1 and T2) ornamental plants irrigated with sprinklers to 62% and irrigated with micro-irrigation (T3) resulted in the largest reduction in irrigation water applied. Compared to T2 where only the irrigation controllers were adjusted, this additional decrease in irrigation water applied was a result of low volume application on only a portion of the landscaped beds where irrigation is only applied to the root zone of plants.     

Evaluation of Closed-Loop Site-Specific Irrigation with Wireless Sensor Network

Automated site-specific sprinkler irrigation system can save water and maximize productivity, but implementing automated irrigation is challenging in system integration and decision making. A controllable irrigation system was integrated into a closed-loop control with a distributed wireless in-field sensor network for automated variable-rate irrigation. An experimental field was configured into five soil zones based on soil electrical conductivity. In-field soil water sensors were installed on each zone of the distributed wireless sensor network and remotely monitored by a base station for decision making. The soil water sensors were calibrated with a neutron probe and individually identified for their response ranges at each zone. Irrigation decisions were site-specifically made based on feedback of soil water conditions from distributed in-field sensor stations. Variable-rate water application was remotely controlled by the base station to actuate solenoids to regulate the amount of time an individual group of sprinkler nozzles was irrigating in a 60-s time period. The performance of the system was evaluated with the measurement of water usage and soil water status throughout the growing season. Variable water distribution collected in catch cans highly matched to the rate assigned by computer with r2 = 0.96. User-friendly software provided real-time wireless irrigation control and monitoring during the irrigation operation without interruptions in wireless radio communication.     

Effects of Various Irrigation Regimes on Soil Water Balance, Yield, and Fruit Quality of Drip-Irrigated Peach Trees

The aim of this research was to determine the amount of irrigation water, irrigation interval, and water consumption that gave the greatest yield, to determine the effect of irrigation on fruit quality characteristics, and to investigate variations in soil moisture in Redhaven peaches irrigated by drip irrigation in the Aegean region of Turkey. The study was performed in 2003 and 2004 on split plots in randomized blocks with three replications. Main treatments were 3 and 6?days between irrigations, and subtreatments comprised four different pan coefficients (Kp1.25, Kp1.00, Kp0.75, and Kp0.50). According to the 2-year averages of peach yields, the effect on yield of the amount of irrigation water was found to be significant (p<0.01), but the effect of the irrigation interval was found not to be significant. Total yield varied between 5,966 and 16,340??kg?ha-1, and marketable yield between 5,349 and 14,164??kg?ha-1, according to irrigation treatments. A maximum average yield of 14,101??kg?ha-1 was obtained from treatment Kp1.00. Average irrigation water amount for this treatment was 482?mm, average water consumption was 705?mm, and the Kpc value was 0.785. Maximum water-use efficiency (WUE) of 2.02??kg?m-3 was obtained from Kp1.00. The yield response factor (ky) was found to be 1.2. Weight of individual fruit varied between 203 and 253?g, height varied from 6.3–6.6?cm, diameter from 7.2–7.7?cm, soluble dry matter from 10.8–14.5%, and juice pH from 4.14–4.37. In the years of the study, the declining trend of soil moisture was greater in the treatments that received little irrigation water than in those that received more. After irrigation was ended, soil moisture decreased rapidly and eventually reached the wilting point. To conclude, when setting up a drip-irrigation program for fully grown peach trees in the Aegean region, the irrigation interval may be 3 or 6?days. The amount of water to be applied at each irrigation can be determined by correcting the total evaporation from a Class-A evaporation pan over the chosen irrigation interval by a coefficient of 0.785.     

Bacteriophages MS2 and PRD1 in Turfgrass by Subsurface Drip Irrigation

The contamination of turfgrass by bacteriophages MS-2 and PRD-1 was assessed in the field under sprinkler irrigation (SI) and subsurface drip irrigation (SDI). No contamination of turfgrass by MS-2 was observed using SDI in the summer or winter seasons. In the summer, PRD-1 was detected in low numbers in SDI turfgrass; however, at significantly lower numbers than in SI turfgrass (p<0.05). In contrast, SI turfgrass was readily contaminated with MS-2 and PRD-1 during both seasons. Column experiments showed that viral migration was greater in sandy soil than in clay soil. Descending viral transport was more pronounced than upward migration, but only significantly greater (p<0.05) in sandy soil. The survival in soil of MS-2 and PRD-1 was compared with that of poliovirus 1 and enteric adenovirus 40. MS-2 showed shorter survival in comparison to the other viruses (p<0.05). The results obtained in this study suggest that SDI used to irrigate turfgrass with wastewater may effectively reduce the risk of contamination by potential viral pathogens.     

工业企业雨水收集装置的设计与应用

提出了一种雨水收集装置的设计方法及应用手段，抽取优质雨水作为正常生产用水的补充或辅助，可适用于工业企业。该装置可直接设置在现有的雨水排水管网上，以雨水的电导率值为控制指标，适时择地的选择优质雨水，并根据所收集的雨水水质送相应的水处理设施。该装置且具有本身构造简单、运行管理维护方便、投资小，便于就地设置等特点，具有较大的推广和应用价值。     

History and Evaluation of Hargreaves Evapotranspiration Equation

A brief history of development of the 1985 Hargreaves equation and its comparison to evapotranspiration (ET) predicted by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Penman-Monteith method are described to provide background and information helpful in selecting an appropriate reference ET equation under various data situations. Early efforts in irrigation water requirement computations in California and other arid and semiarid regions required the development of simplified ET equations for use with limited weather data. Several initial efforts were directed towards improving the usefulness of pan evaporation for estimating irrigation water requirements. Similarity with climates of other countries allowed developments in California to be extended overseas. Criticism of empirical methods by H. L. Penman and others encouraged the search for a robust and practical method that was based on readily available climatic data for computing potential evapotranspiration or reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo). One of these efforts ultimately culminated in the 1985 Hargreaves ETo method. The 1985 Hargreaves ETo method requires only measured temperature data, is simple, and appears to be less impacted than Penman-type methods when data are collected from arid or semiarid, nonirrigated sites. For irrigated sites, the Hargreaves 1985 ETo method produces values for periods of five or more days that compare favorably with those of the FAO Penman-Monteith and California Irrigation Management Information Services (CIMIS) Penman methods. The Hargreaves ETo predicted 0.97 of lysimeter measured ETo at Kimberly, Idaho after adjustment of lysimeter data for differences in surface conductance from the FAO Penman-Monteith definition. Monthly ETo by the 1985 Hargreaves equation compares closely with ETo calculated using a simplified, “reduced-set” Penman-Monteith that requires air temperature data only.     

Long-Term Effects of Irrigation Water Conservation on Crop Production and Environment in Semiarid Areas

As water is becoming a scarcer commodity, savings in the irrigation sector could enhance water development in areas currently not being irrigated, and arrest the rapid environmental degradation due to waterlogging in arid areas. The agro-hydrological model SWAP is used to investigate possible water reductions for wheat and cotton crops under shallow water table conditions prevailing in the Fourth Drainage Project in Punjab, Pakistan. The simulations are performed for both drained and undrained conditions considering three different irrigation water qualities. The overall objective is to save good-quality irrigation water. The results indicate that when good-quality canal water is available, a reduced application to wheat (195 mm) and cotton (260 mm) will keep the soil healthier under both drained and undrained conditions. For poor-quality irrigation waters (mixed canal and tubewell or tubewell alone), this water conservation strategy will be insufficient. Therefore, more water (325 mm for wheat and 325 mm for cotton) should be applied to keep crop production and soil salinity within desirable limits. However, this will only be applicable to the areas where proper subsurface drainage systems are present. For undrained areas, this strategy will not be feasible due to rising water tables; other options like growing more salt-tolerant crops should be considered. Drainage cannot solve salinity buildup problems under all circumstances because relatively dry monsoons provide insufficient leaching water, and salts added by tubewell irrigation can only be evacuated from the soil profile if the drainage system is very intense. Reduced irrigation inputs is a proper short-term solution, although wheat production tends to decline in all areas without drainage, even when irrigated with canal water. Large-scale drainage investments associated with adjusted irrigation planning seem unavoidable in the long run.     

Effects of Magnetized Water and Irrigation Water Salinity on Soil Moisture Distribution in Trickle Irrigation

Magnetized water is obtained by passing water through a strong permanent magnet installed in or on a feed pipeline. This study was performed at Gorgan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center, Gorgan province, Iran, to investigate soil moisture distribution under trickle irrigation. Two main treatments of magnetic and nonmagnetic water and three subtreatments of irrigation water salts, including well water as a control, 200-ppm calcium carbonate, and 400-ppm calcium carbonate were used. The experiment was laid out with a complete randomized block design with three replications. Soil moisture distribution around the emitters were measured 24?h after irrigation during the 3-month irrigation period. The results showed that the mean soil moisture contents at depths of 0–20, 20–40, and 40–60?cm below the emitter for the magnetized irrigation water treatment were more than the nonmagnetized irrigation water treatment, and the differences were significant at the 5% level. The irrigation with magnetic water as compared with the nonmagnetic water increased soil moisture up to 7.5%, and this increase was significant at the 1% level. The effect of irrigation water salinity on soil moisture was significant. The highest soil moisture content was from the 400-ppm calcium carbonate subtreatment. The use of magnetized water for irrigation is recommended to save irrigation water.     

Automation of a Center Pivot Using the Temperature-Time-Threshold Method of Irrigation Scheduling

A center pivot was completely automated using the temperature-time-threshold method of irrigation scheduling. An array of infrared thermometers was mounted on the center pivot, and these were used to remotely determine the crop leaf temperature as an indicator of crop water stress. We describe methods used to automatically collect and analyze the canopy temperature data and control the moving irrigation system based on the data analysis. Automatic irrigation treatments were compared with manually scheduled irrigation treatments under the same center pivot during the growing seasons of 2004 and 2005. Manual irrigations were scheduled on a weekly basis using the neutron probe to determine the profile water content and the amount of water needed to replenish the profile to field capacity. In both years, there was no significant difference between manual and automatic treatments in soybean water use efficiency or irrigation water use efficiency. The automatic irrigation system has the potential to simplify management, while maintaining the yields of intensely managed irrigation.     

LEPA and Spray Irrigation for Grain Crops

Two low energy precision application (LEPA) sprinkler methods (double-ended socks and bubblers) and two spray sprinkler methods (low-elevation spray application and overhead spray) were used to irrigate corn, grain sorghum, and winter wheat in the Southern High Plains. For full or 100% irrigation, sufficient 25-mm applications were applied to maintain soil water at non-yield-limiting levels determined in earlier research with the three crops. Deficit-irrigated treatments were irrigated on the same days as the control treatment in 25 or 33% increments of the fully irrigated amount. Irrigation water was applied to or above alternate furrows with a three-span lateral move irrigation system. Corn and sorghum were grown on beds and furrows with all furrows diked, and wheat was flat-planted without basin tillage. Grain yields increased significantly with irrigation amount (p ≤ 0.05) for all crops during all years. With full irrigation, grain yields varied little among the sprinkler methods, and yields averaged 13.5, 8.9, and 4.6 Mg∕ha for corn, sorghum, and wheat, respectively. With the 25 and 50% deficit irrigation amounts, sorghum yields with LEPA irrigation were 1.1 Mg∕ha larger than with the two spray methods. For 75% irrigation of sorghum and for deficit irrigation of the other two crops, there was little yield difference between the LEPA and spray sprinkler methods. Grain yields were significantly correlated with seasonal water use with regression coefficients of 2.89, 1.84, and 0.915 kg∕m3 for corn, sorghum, and wheat, respectively.     

Performance of Wet Weather Treatment Facility for Control of Combined Sewer Overflows: Case Study in Cincinnati, Ohio

Efforts aimed at reducing pollutant loads from combined sewer overflows (CSOs) on the Muddy Creek receiving waters in Cincinnati, Ohio have been underway in recent years. This includes an investigation of the treatment performance of a flow-through wet weather treatment facility (WWTF) using off-line sedimentation tanks, fine screening and chemical disinfection (disinfection was inactive during this study). Calculations using hydrographs and water quality samples collected at the WWTF during rain events established the mass of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)5, chemical oxygen demand, and total suspended solids (TSS) removed. Ten storm events sampled from January to September 2002 helped characterize pollutant removal efficiencies for flow-through treatment. Pollutant removal was classified into four components: flow to the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), sedimentation, storage, and screening. Most pollutant removal was achieved through settling and storage in the treatment tanks, with removal efficiencies of 20–50% for BOD5 and 25–70% for TSS commonly observed. Owing to the high pollutant load in the early portion of the CSO hydrograph, first-flush containment, or capturing and conveying the early portion of the runoff event to the WWTP, was the most efficient treatment method for every storm investigated.     

Side-effects of high pressure irrigation

This study was undertaken to identify side-effects of high pressure irrigation. Standardized surgical wounds made in Yorkshire pigs were subjected to high pressure syringe and pulsatile irrigation. As a result of these treatments, fluids were disseminated into the adjacent tissue of the wound, predominantly in a lateral direction. Bacteria did not accompany this disseminated fluid and apparently were filtered out by the surface tissues. This treatment results in a tissue injury which impairs its defenses, making the wound more susceptible to infection. However, the remarkable cleansing capacity of high pressure irrigation appears to outweigh this side-effect, since heavily contaminated wounds subjected to this treatment heal per primum without infection.     

Development and Evaluation of Soil Moisture-Based Seepage Irrigation Management for Water Use and Quality

A 2-year study was conducted at a seepage-irrigated vegetable farm in south Florida to develop and evaluate an improved, soil moisture-based irrigation management practice that could potentially reduce irrigation water use, prevent water quality impairment, and maintain or improve crop yield. The improved practice reduced irrigation water use by 36% compared to the conventional irrigation management. Moreover, the improved practice also increased rainfall retention and decreased runoff events by lowering the water table 13?cm compared to the conventional practice. Total dissolved phosphorus (P) concentrations in groundwater were higher (p<0.01) for the improved practice compared with the conventional practice in two of the three fields where ground water quality was monitored. Higher P concentrations for the improved practice were likely due to the dilution effect. Statistically, no differences (p>0.05) were observed in groundwater nitrogen (N) (NOx–N, NH4–N, and total dissolved N) concentrations between the improved and the conventional practices. Similarly, no statistical difference was observed in crop yield between the improved and the conventional practices, although the average total yield was higher for the improved practice. The improved practice also reduced the incidence of plant disease compared to the conventional practice which resulted in crop failure in some fields. Thus, use of the improved practice reduced irrigation water use without impacting crop yield.     

Cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analyses of behavioral marital therapy as an addition to outpatient alcoholism treatment

Thirty-six newly abstinent married male alcoholics, who had recently begun outpatient individual alcoholism counseling, were randomly assigned to a no-marital-therapy control group or to 10 weekly sessions of a behavioral marital therapy (BMT) or an interactional couples group. The cost-benefit analysis of BMT plus individual alcoholism counseling showed (a) decreases in health care and legal costs in the 2 years after as compared to the year before treatment, (b) a positive cost offset, and (c) a benefit-to-cost ratio greater than 1 indicating that health and legal system cost savings (i.e., benefits) exceeded the cost of delivering the BMT treatment. None of the positive cost-benefit results observed for BMT were true for participants given interactional couples therapy plus individual alcoholism counseling for which posttreatment utilization costs increased. Thus, adding BMT to individual alcoholism counseling produced a positive cost benefit, whereas the addition of interactional couples therapy did not. Individual counseling both alone and with BMT added showed substantial and significant cost savings from reduced utilization that substantially and significantly exceeded the cost of delivering the treatment; and the two treatments did not differ significantly on these cost savings and cost offsets. Individual counseling alone did have a significantly more positive benefit-to-cost ratio than BMT plus individual counseling due to the lower cost of delivering the individual counseling which was about half the cost of delivering BMT plus individual counseling. Cost-effectiveness analyses indicated that BMT plus individual counseling was less cost effective than individual counseling alone and modestly more cost effective than interactional therapy in producing abstinence from drinking. When marital adjustment outcomes were considered, the three treatments were equally cost effective except during the active treatment phase when BMT was more cost effective than interactional couples therapy. Study limitations are discussed.     

Growth and Evapotranspiration of Okra (Abelmoschus Esculentus L.) as Influenced by Salinity of Irrigation Water

The effects of irrigation water salinity on growth, yield, and water consumption of okra was investigated with a pot experiment. For this purpose, five irrigation water salinity levels with electrical conductivities of 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 5.0, and 7.0?dS/m and tap water as a control treatment were used in a randomized design with five replications. Irrigation practices were realized by considering the weight of each pot. Threshold soil salinity and slope values of the yield response to soil salinity level were determined to be 3.48?dS/m and 4.2%, respectively, for fruit yield, 4.24?dS/m and 7.0% for vegetative dry weight, and 6.0?dS/m and 7.9% for root dry weight. The results revealed that okra was moderately tolerant to salinity. Increasing soil salinity levels caused significant decreases in plant water consumption. Plant water consumption decreased by 2.43% per unit increase in soil salinity. Plant coefficient (Ky) was 1.26. Saline irrigation water treatments altered Cl, Mg, Ca, and Na accumulations in leaves, whereas only Na accumulation in fruits was observed.