Estimated daily intake and safety of FD&C food-colour additives in the US population

ABSTRACT

A refined exposure assessment was undertaken to calculate the estimated daily intake (EDI) of the seven FD&C straight-colour additives and five FD&C colour lakes (‘synthetic’ food colours) approved in the United States. The EDIs were calculated for the US population as a whole and specific age groups, including children aged 2–5 and 6–12 years, adolescents aged 13–18 years, and adults aged 19 or more y. Actual use data were collected from an industry survey of companies that are users of these colour additives in a variety of products, with additional input from food colour manufacturers. Food-consumption data were obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). The assessment was further refined by adjusting the intake to more realistic scenarios based on the fraction of products containing colour within specific food categories using data provided by the Mintel International Group Ltd. The results of the analysis indicate that (1) the use levels reported by the industry are consistent with the concentrations measured analytically by the US Food and Drug Administration; and (2) exposure to food-colour additives in the United States by average and high-intake consumers is well below the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of each colour additive as published by the Joint WHO/FAO Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and allows wide margins of safety. It is concluded that food colour use as currently practised in the United States is safe and does not result in excessive exposure to the population, even at conservative ranges of food consumption and levels of use.     

Exposure estimates of nitrite and nitrate from consumption of cured meat products by the U.S. population

The dietary exposures of nitrite and nitrate from consumption of cured meat products were estimated for the U.S. population aged 2 years and older, and children aged 2 to 5 years, using both 2-day food consumption data from the publicly available combined 2009–2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and 10–14-day food consumption data from the 2009 and 2012 NPD Group, Inc. National Eating Trends-Nutrient Intake database (NPD NET-NID), and residual nitrite and nitrate levels in cured meat products available from the recent American Meat Institute Foundation/National Pork Board (AMIF/NPB) national market survey of the nitrite and nitrate levels in cured meat products in the U.S.A. The dietary exposure for consumers of cured meat products (eaters-only) was estimated at the mean and 90th percentile for three exposure scenarios: low exposure, average exposure, and high exposure, to account for the range in the amount of nitrite and nitrate in a given cured meat product category. In addition, a cumulative exposure that takes into account all cured meat product categories containing nitrite and nitrate was determined, and the relative percent contribution of each cured meat product category to the cumulative exposure was estimated. Cured, cooked sausages and whole-muscle brine-cured products were the two major contributing categories to dietary exposure of nitrite and nitrate for both U.S. population aged 2 years and older and children aged 2–5 years.     

Dietary exposures for the safety assessment of seven emulsifiers commonly added to foods in the United States and implications for safety

ABSTRACT

Dietary exposure assessment using food-consumption data and ingredient-use level is essential for assessing the safety of food ingredients. Dietary exposure estimates are compared with safe intake levels, such as the acceptable daily intake (ADI). The ADI is estimated by applying a safety factor to an experimentally determined no-observed-adverse-effect level of a test substance. Two food ingredients classified as emulsifiers, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and polysorbate 80 (P80), received attention recently due to their putative adverse effects on gut microbiota. Because no published dietary exposure estimates for commonly used emulsifiers exist for the US population, the current investigation focused on the estimation of dietary exposure to seven emulsifiers: CMC, P80, lecithin, mono- and diglycerides (MDGs), stearoyl lactylates, sucrose esters, and polyglycerol polyricinoleate. Using maximum-use levels obtained from publicly available sources, dietary exposures to these emulsifiers were estimated for the US population (aged 2 years and older) for two time periods (1999–2002 and 2003–10) using 1- and 2-day food-consumption data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, and 10–14-day food-consumption data from NPD Group, Inc.’s National Eating Trends – Nutrient Intake Database. Our analyses indicated that among the emulsifiers assessed, lecithin and MDGs have the highest mean exposures at about 60 and about 80 mg kg^–1 bw day^–1, respectively, whereas the exposure to CMC is half to one-third that of lecithin or MDGs; and the exposure to P80 is approximately half that of CMC. The review of available safety information such as ADIs established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), in light of our updated dietary exposure estimates for these seven emulsifiers, did not raise safety concerns at the current specified levels of use. Additionally, by examining two time periods (1999–2002, 2003–10), it was concluded that there is no evidence that exposure levels to emulsifiers have substantially increased.     

Quenching Mechanisms and Kinetics of α-Tocopherol and β-Carotene on the Photosensitizing Effect of Synthetic Food Colorant FD&C Red No. 3

ABSTRACT: Effects of FD&C Red No. 40, Red No. 3, Yellow No. 5, Yellow No. 6, Green No. 3, Blue No. 1 and Blue No. 2 on 0.03M soybean oil oxidation in acetone at 25 °C under light were studied by measuring headspace oxygen depletion. As Red No. 3 increased from 0 to 5, 20, 100 and 200 ppm, the headspace oxygen was reduced by 2 to 70, 73, 77 and 77%, respectively, for 4 h. Only Red No. 3 acted as a photosensitizer to produce singlet oxygen in the oil. The quenching rates of α-tocopherol and β-carotene for the singlet oxygen by Red No.3 were 4.1 × 10⁷ M⁻¹s⁻¹ and 7.3 × 10⁹ M⁻¹s⁻¹, respectively. When β-carotene was below 1.86 × 10⁻⁶ M, β-carotene quenched singlet oxygen, but it quenched both singlet oxygen and Red No. 3 at or above 3.72 × 10⁻⁶ M. However, α-tocopherol quenched singlet oxygen only.     

Identification and quantification of the decarboxylated analogue of Pigments Red 57 and 57:1 in the color additives D&C Red No. 6, D&C Red No. 7, and their lakes,using a chelating agent and UHPLC

Pigment Red 57 (Colour Index No. 15850, PR57) and Pigment Red 57:1 (Colour Index No. 15850:1, PR57:1) are certifiable in the USA as the color additives D&C Red No. 6 (R6) and D&C Red No. 7 (R7) for use in drugs and cosmetics. In the EU, PR57:1 is permitted in cosmetics and also as a food additive (E180) for colouring edible cheese rinds. The USFDA batch-certifies R6, R7, and their lakes in accordance with limiting specifications for impurities stated in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). In the current work, an impurity not specified in the CFR was studied because of its consistent presence in samples of R6 and R7 submitted for certification. Using spectroscopic methods, the impurity was tentatively identified as 4-[(4-methyl-2-sulfophenyl)azo]-3-naphthalenol (DPR57), the decarboxylated analogue of PR57 and PR57:1. Its identity was confirmed by synthesising DPR57 and determining that the UHPLC retention time, UV/visible spectrum and mass spectrum of the synthetic material were identical to those of the impurity. Using the synthesised DPR57 as a reference material, the impurity was quantified in 43 batches of R6, R7, and lakes produced by eight different manufacturers. Calibration curves ranging from 0.02% to 1.00% (w/w) were prepared by plotting the UHPLC area of DPR57 at 485 nm against its concentration. DPR57 levels ranged from < 0.02% to 0.50%. To facilitate dissolution of the color additive samples for DPR57 analysis, a relatively simple procedure was developed by adapting a previously published method that involves use of a basic solution of the chelating agent EDTA and the organic solvent N,N’-dimethylformamide. A source for DPR57 contamination of the color additives is also proposed.     

Quenching Mechanism and Kinetics of Ascorbic Acid on the Photosensitizing Effects of Synthetic Food Colorant FD&C Red Nr 3

ABSTRACT:  The pH effect on the oxidative stability of ascorbic acid in the presence of food colorant FD&C Red Nr 3 during storage with or without light was investigated. The quenching mechanism and kinetics of ascorbic acid on the FD&C Red Nr 3 photosensitized oxidation in an aqueous system at 25 °C were also studied by measuring the degradation of ascorbic acid or depletion of headspace oxygen. Red Nr 3 had no influence on the oxidation of ascorbic acid under dark storage, but accelerated its oxidation rate under light storage. The oxidative stability of ascorbic acid decreased as the pH increased from 4 to 7 under light without FD&C Red Nr 3. The quenching rates of ascorbic acid on the singlet oxygen by measuring the degradation of ascorbic acid in the presence of Red Nr 3 under light storage were 1.53 ± 0.15 × 10⁸, 1.86 ± 0.25 × 10⁸, and 1.19 ± 0.12 × 10⁸ M⁻¹S⁻¹ at pH 4, 5.6, and 7, respectively.     

A U.S. population dietary exposure assessment for 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) from foods containing caramel colour and from formation of 4-MEI through the thermal treatment of food

ABSTRACT

4-Methylimidazole (4-MEI) is formed in caramel colours produced using ammonium compounds (Class III and Class IV caramel colours). 4-MEI can also form in food through Maillard reactions between reducing sugars and amino acids during cooking, roasting or dry-heating. The USFDA has analysed over 700 food and beverage samples collected from 2013 to 2015 for the presence of 4-MEI. These samples include foods containing added caramel colour and foods that are not labelled as containing added caramel colour, but which may contain 4-MEI resulting from thermal treatment. The 4-MEI levels in all food samples were quantified using LC-MS/MS. These data were used to develop a comprehensive dietary exposure assessment for 4-MEI for the U.S. population aged 2 years or more and several sub-populations, using two non-consecutive days of food consumption data from the combined 2009–2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and 10–14-day food consumption survey data for 2009–2012 from the NPD Group, Inc. National Eating Trends–Nutrient Intake Database. Dietary exposure estimates were prepared for each category of foods labelled as containing added caramel colour and of foods not labelled as containing added caramel colour, but which may contain 4-MEI from thermal treatment. Exposure to 4-MEI from consumption of foods containing added caramel colour was higher than that from foods that contain 4-MEI from thermal treatment for all population groups. Cola-type carbonated beverages were the highest contributors for most populations from foods containing added caramel colour. Coffee was the highest contributor for most populations from foods in which 4-MEI could be formed from thermal treatment. An overall combined exposure to 4-MEI was also estimated that included all foods identified as containing added caramel colour and foods in which 4-MEI could be formed by thermal treatment.     

Effective Regulatory Approval Process for Food Ingredient Technologies

Most sciences and technologies related to food safety have advanced exponentially over the 40 years since passage in the U.S. of the Food Additive Amendment of 1958 to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act. Effective regulatory decision making places a high premium on competent professional and administrative judgement applied to sound scientific data. This review discusses changes and lessons learned in the food safety sciences over the last 4 decades. Other segments of the safety and compliance infrastructure necessary to assure that the public receives safe and wholesome foods have not kept pace with the new scientific knowledge. The quality of foods in our marketplace can be improved only after the regulatory and legislative segments of the infrastructure, discussed in a companion symposium paper,⁸ are brought into better synchrony with the sciences.     

Estimated US infant exposures to 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters from consumption of infant formula

A dietary exposure assessment was conducted for 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) in infant formulas available for consumption in the United States. 3-MCPDE and GE are food contaminants generated during the deodorisation of refined edible oils, which are used in infant formulas and other foods. 3-MCPDE and GE are of potential toxicological concern because these compounds are metabolised to free 3-MCPD and free glycidol in rodents and may have the same metabolic fate in humans. Free 3-MCPD and free glycidol have been found to cause adverse effects in rodents. Dietary exposures to 3-MCPDE and GE from consumption of infant formulas are of particular interest because formulas are the sole or primary food source for some infants. In this analysis, US Food and Drug Administration data on 3-MCPDE and GE concentrations (as 3-MCPD and glycidol equivalents, respectively) in a small convenience sample of infant formulas were used to estimate exposures from consumption of formula by infants 0–6 months of age. 3-MCPDE and GE exposures based on mean concentrations in all formulas were estimated at 7–10 and 2 µg/kg bw/day, respectively. Estimated mean exposures from consumption of formulas produced by individual manufacturers ranged from 1 to 14 µg/kg bw/day for 3-MCPDE and from 1 to 3 µg/kg for GE.     

Tiered intake assessment for food colours

ABSTRACT

A tiered intake assessment approach, ranging from the conservative default and refined budget method to refined dietary exposure assessments using national food consumption surveys is presented and applied to derive maximum potential global colour intake estimates. The US and UK markets served as representative for the world and the EU, respectively, to determine the maximum potential exposure ceilings for eleven colours in various sub-populations, including brand-loyal consumers. Industry-reported global use levels were assigned as the maximum level. Conservative intake assessments for food colours used in non-alcoholic beverages were estimated for the general population 2 + y, toddlers, children 3–9 y, adolescents 10–17 y, adults 18–64 y, elderly 65–74 y, very elderly 75 + y based on assumed uses in high intake markets. Refined dietary exposures were estimated using either the 2-day food consumption data from the 2013–2016 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey or the 4-day food consumption data from the 2008–2016 U.K. National Diet and Nutrition Survey Rolling Programme. In the most refined market-share adjusted assessment, brand-specific market volume data were used to place appropriate weight on corresponding beverage type uses. Strong concordance between the refined budget method and the brand-loyal deterministic approach was shown, in which the latter assumes that the maximum use level of the colour is present in 100% of non-alcoholic beverages. This study shows that safety of colours – both synthetic and natural – in beverages at proposed use levels can be supported for any geography, with all intake estimates falling below the acceptable daily intake in refined assessments. Importantly, this study demonstrates that the refined budget method is a valid first-tier screening assessment to prioritise food colours that may benefit from more refined intake assessments when warranted.     

Dietary intake assessment of caramel colours and their processing by-products 4-methylimidazole and 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxy-butylimidazole for the Chinese population

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study was to assess the dietary intake of caramel colours and their by-products 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) and 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI) for the Chinese population. Based on the typical and maximum reported use levels of caramel colours in 15 food categories, the dietary intakes of combined and single-class caramel colours of Classes I, III and IV were estimated with the food consumption data from the China National Nutrient and Health Survey. Using the mean values of 4-MEI and THI contents in Class III and Class IV Caramel colour samples, the exposures to 4-MEI and THI from dietary caramel colours were derived. The results showed that the combined and individual average dietary caramel colour intakes for the Chinese population of different age groups were estimated to be 232–60.3 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for combined caramels, 5.9–29.2 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for Class I, 7.7–29.6 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for Class III, 21.2–54.3 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for Class IV, which were far below the group acceptable daily intake (ADI) and respective ADIs. The combined intake of 4-MEI from Class III and IV caramel colours was estimated to be 3.8–5.2 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 on average, and 12.9–27.1 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 at 95th-97.5th percentile for the general population. The anticipated exposure to THI from Class III caramel colours was estimated to be 0.1–0.3 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 on average and 0.5–1.7 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 at 95th–97.5th percentile for the general population. The dietary caramel colours intakes and the exposures to 4-MEI and THI from dietary caramel colour for the Chinese population were considered to be of low health concern based on the present toxicological data. Soy sauce, vinegar and compound seasonings were found to be the main contributors to the dietary intake of caramel colours.     

Exposure assessment of food preservatives (sulphites,benzoic and sorbic acid) in Austria

An exposure assessment was performed to estimate the potential intake of preservatives in the Austrian population. Food consumption data of different population groups, such as preschool children aged 3–6 years, female and male adults aged 19–65 years were used for calculation. Levels of the preservatives in food were derived from analyses conducted from January 2007 to August 2010. Dietary intakes of the preservatives were estimated and compared to the respective acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). In the average-intake scenario, assuming that consumers randomly consume food products that do or do not contain food additives, estimated dietary intakes of all studied preservatives are well below the ADI for all population groups. Sulphite exposure accounted for 34%, 84% and 89% of the ADI in preschool children, females and males, respectively. The mean estimated daily intake of benzoic acid was 32% (preschool children), 31% (males) and 36% (females) of the ADI. Sorbic acid intakes correspond to 7% of the ADI in preschool children and 6% of the ADI in adults. In the high-intake scenario assuming that consumers always consume food products that contain additives and considering a kind of brand loyalty of consumers, the ADI is exceeded for sulphites among adults (119 and 124%, respectively). Major contributors to the total intake of sulphites were wine and dried fruits for adults. Mean estimated dietary intakes of benzoic acid exceeded the ADI in all population groups, 135% in preschool children, 124% in females and 118% of the ADI in males, respectively. Dietary intakes of sorbic acid are well below the ADI, accounting for a maximum of 30% of the ADI in preschool children. The highest contributors to benzoic and sorbic acid exposure were fish and fish products mainly caused by high consumption data of this large food group, including also mayonnaise-containing fish salads. Other important sources of sorbic acid were bread, buns and toast bread and fruit and vegetable juices.     

Isolation, identification and determination of a magenta subsidiary colour in Food Blue No. 1 (Brilliant Blue FCF)

A magenta subsidiary colour was isolated from commercial Food Blue No. 1 (B-1; Brilliant Blue FCF). The absorption maximum for this subsidiary colour at 580nm is outside of the range of 614-628nm found for other subsidiary colours and m,m -B-1. On the basis of MS and NMR analyses, the structure of the subsidiary colour was elucidated as the disodium salt of 2-[[4-[Nethyl-N-(3-sulphophenylmethyl)amino]phenyl][4-oxo2,5-cyclohexadienylide acid. HPL C analyses revealed that 24 batches of commercial Food Blue No. 1 (three manufacturers) contain 0.1- 0.8% (average: 0.5% ) of the magenta subsidiary colour.     

Dietary exposures to eight metallic contaminants of the Hong Kong adult population from a total diet study

Dietary exposures to eight metallic contaminants, aluminium (Al), antimony (Sb), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), methylmercury (MeHg), nickel (Ni), tin (Sn) and vanadium (V), of the Hong Kong adult population were estimated using the total diet study (TDS) approach. The estimated mean exposures of Al (0.60 mg kg^–1 bw week^–1), Sb (0.016–0.039 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1), Cd (8.3 µg kg^–1 bw month^–1), Pb (0.21 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1), MeHg (0.74 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1), Ni (3.1 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1), Sn (0.029–0.031 mg kg^–1 bw week^–1) and V (0.13 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1) were well below the relevant health-based guidance values (HBGVs) where available. However, dietary exposures to MeHg of women aged 20–49 years (child-bearing age) accounted for 150% of the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) and to Al and Cd of some high consumers were found exceeding or approaching the HBGVs. The major food contributors of MeHg were fish and seafood (90%), of Al were non-alcoholic beverages including tea (33%), and of Cd were vegetables (36%). MeHg exposure during pregnancy was a public health concern in Hong Kong due to potential health risks to the foetus. Results suggest that there is a need to continue monitoring the exposures to metallic contaminants, especially Al, Cd and MeHg, of the Hong Kong population.     

Synthetic colourings of some snack foods consumed by primary school children aged 8–9 years in Hong Kong

An HPLC method with photodiode array detection was used for the quantification of 11 synthetic dyes in 87 snack food products commonly consumed by children in Hong Kong, China. Dietary exposure to synthetic colours was estimated using food-frequency questionnaire data obtained from 142 primary school children aged 8–9 years in three districts of Hong Kong. Dietary exposure to synthetic colours for an average primary school student was considerably lower than the threshold for acceptable daily intake (ADI) for their ages, except for sunset yellow FCF. Data obtained showed that the average daily intake of sunset yellow FCF (E110) was 51% over the ADI threshold in 9-year-old boys. The higher intakes of sunset yellow FCF were mainly due to the high consumption of soft drinks and desserts such as jellies, which have high concentrations of this synthetic colour additive.     

Dietary exposure of Hong Kong adults to pesticide residues: results of the first Hong Kong total diet study

The use of pesticides and other chemicals has become a common practice in modern agriculture to enhance and stabilise crop yield, protect the nutritional integrity of food, facilitate food storage to assure year-round supplies, and provide attractive and appealing food products. With the adoption of strict good agricultural practice (GAP), only minimal amounts of pesticide residues should remain on the crops or in connected foods of animal origin up the food chain. To assess their associated health risk to local people, the dietary exposure of Hong Kong adults to residues of four groups of pesticides or their metabolites – organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs), carbamates, pyrethrins and pyrethroids, and dithiocarbamate (DTC) metabolites – is estimated in the first Hong Kong Total Diet Study (TDS). A total of 150 commonly consumed food items were collected and prepared “as consumed”. A total of 600 composite food samples were analysed for 85 pesticides or their metabolites by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). These pesticides were primarily found at low levels (highest mean = 350 μg kg^?1) in food samples of plant origin such as vegetables and fruits. Dietary exposures to pesticide residues were estimated based on the analytical results and the food consumption data of the local residents. The estimated dietary exposures of Hong Kong adults to all individual pesticides were well below their respective acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). The percentage contributions of the estimated mean and 95th percentile dietary exposures to the ADIs of individual pesticides were <6% and <24% for the OPPs, <1% for the carbamates and pyrethrins and pyrethroids, and <1% and <4% for the DTC metabolites, respectively. The findings indicate that dietary exposures to all the pesticide residues analysed in this study were unlikely to pose unacceptable health risks to the Hong Kong population.     

Dietary exposure to chloropropanols of secondary school students in Hong Kong

This paper reports levels of 3-monochloropropan-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) in a wide range of food items and estimates their dietary exposure for secondary school students in Hong Kong. Dietary exposure to chloropropanols was estimated using local food consumption data obtained from secondary school students in 2000 and the concentrations of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in food samples taken from the local market. The dietary exposure to 3-MCPD for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.063–0.150 µg kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.152–0.300 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. Both estimates fell below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 µg kg^?1 bw established by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and amounted to less than 20% of this safety reference value. The dietary exposure to 1,3-DCP for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.003–0.019 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.009–0.040 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. The resulting margins of exposures were of low concern for human health. It could be concluded that both the average and high secondary school student consumers were unlikely to experience major toxicological effects of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP.     

Occurrence of toluene in Canadian total diet foods and its significance to overall human exposure

Levels of most VOCs in foods are usually low because of their volatility, and human exposure to VOCs is expected to be mainly via inhalation of ambient and indoor air. However, dietary exposures to VOCs can be significant to overall exposures if elevated concentrations of VOCs are present in foods consumed in high amounts and/or on a regular basis, and this was demonstrated in this study with the occurrence data of toluene from the recent 2014 Canadian Total Diet Study (TDS). Concentrations of toluene in the composite samples of most food types from the 2014 TDS are low and similar to the results from the previous 2007 TDS with some exceptions, such as beef steak (670 ng/g (2014 TDS) vs. 14 ng/g (2007 TDS)), poultry, chicken and turkey (307 ng/g (2014 TDS) vs. 8.8 ng/g (2007 TDS)). Toluene concentrations in most of the grain-based and fast food composite samples from the 2014 TDS are considerably higher than those from the 2007 TDS, with the highest level of 4655 ng/g found in the composite sample of crackers from the 2014 TDS (compared to 18 ng/g from 2007 TDS). Dietary exposure estimates for toluene based on the occurrence results from the 2014 TDS show that for most of the age groups, grain-based foods are the primary source, accounting for an average of 77.5% of the overall toluene intake from the diet. The highest dietary exposures to toluene were observed for the adult age groups, with estimated average exposures ranging from 177.4 to 184.5 µg/d. Dietary exposure estimates to toluene are well below oral doses associated with toxicological effects and also below the maximum estimated intake (819 µg/d) from air inhalation for adult group (20 – 70 years) based on the results from CEPA (Canadian Environmental Protection Act) assessment in 1992.     

Dietary exposure to mycotoxins of the Hong Kong adult population from a Total Diet Study

Dietary exposure of Hong Kong adults to mycotoxins and their metabolites including aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FNs), deoxynivalenol (DON), acetyldeoxynivalenols (AcDONs) and zearalenone (ZEA) was estimated using the Total Diet Study (TDS) approach to assess the associated health risk to the local people. Sixty commonly consumed food items, collected in four seasons, were sampled and prepared as consumed. These mycotoxins were primarily found at low levels. The highest mean levels (upper bound) were: AFs, 1.50 µg kg^–1 in legumes, nuts and seed; OTA, 0.22 µg kg^–1 in sugars and confectionery; FNs, 9.76 µg kg^–1 in cereals and their products; DON and AcDONs, 33.1 µg kg^–1 in cereals and their products; and ZEA, 53.8 µg kg^–1 in fats and oils. The estimated dietary exposures of Hong Kong adults to the mycotoxins analysed were well below the respective health-based guidance values, where available. For AFs, the upper-bound exposure for high consumers is 0.0049 µg kg bw^–1 day^–1, which was estimated to contribute to about 7.7 (< 1%) of liver cancer cases when compared with 1222 liver cancer cases per year in Hong Kong. The percentage contributions of the estimated 95th percentile dietary exposures (lower and upper bound) to the health-based guidance values of individual mycotoxins were: ochratoxin A, 3.6–9.2%; fumonisins, 0.04–8.5%; deoxynivalenol and acetyldeoxynivalenols, 21.7–28.2%; and zearalenone 3.3–34.5%. The findings indicate that dietary exposures to all the mycotoxins analysed in this study were unlikely to pose an unacceptable health risk to the Hong Kong population.