Creep behaviour of a new air-hardenable intermetallic Ti–46Al–8Ta alloy

Creep behaviour of a new cast air-hardenable intermetallic Ti–46Al–8Ta (at.%) alloy was investigated. Constant load tensile creep tests were performed at initial applied stresses ranging from 200 to 400 MPa in the temperature range from 973 to 1073 K. The minimum creep rate is found to depend strongly on the applied stress and temperature. The power law stress exponent of the minimum creep rate is n = 5.8 and the apparent activation energy for creep is calculated to be Q_a = (382.9 ± 14.5) kJ/mol. The kinetics of creep deformation of the specimens tested to a minimum creep rate (creep deformation about 2%) is suggested to be controlled by non-conservative motion of dislocations in the γ(TiAl) matrix. Besides dislocation mechanisms, deformation twinning contributes significantly to overall measured strains in the specimens tested to fracture. The initial γ(TiAl) + α₂(Ti₃Al) microstructure of the creep specimens is unstable and transforms to the γ + α₂ + τ type during creep. The particles of the τ phase are preferentially formed along the grain and lamellar colony boundaries.     

Grain refinement in γ-TiAl-based alloys by solid state phase transformations

The colony size of a fully lamellar Ti–46Al–2Cr–2Mo–0.25Si–0.3B ingot was refined from 120 to 30–65 μm by well defined heat-treatments which exploit the suppression of the α → α + γ transformation or involve cyclic annealing around the α-transus temperature. In addition, an extremely fine lamellar spacing in the range of 30–40 nm was obtained. For coarse-grained fully lamellar Ti–46Al–9Nb a massive phase transformation was used for microstructural refinement. The thermal stability of the massively transformed material was tested by annealing treatments and characterized by hardness measurements and the variation of the c/a-ratio of the tetragonal γ-TiAl cell as obtained from X-ray diffraction. After annealing at 1200 °C α₂-Ti₃Al lamellae appear within the former massively transformed γ-TiAl grains parallel to all four (111)_γ-planes causing an increase in hardness.     

Internal friction in γ-TiAl at high temperatures

The internal friction in TiAl polycrystals of technical purity was studied in the temperature range of 300–1500 K using an inverted torsion pendulum. Extruded single-phase γ-TiAl with an aluminium content of 54.1 at.% shows a large, frequency-dependent relaxation maximum near 1300 K during cooling from temperatures above 1400 K, which is neither observed during heating from ambient temperature nor in two-phase α₂/γ-TiAl alloys with a lower Al content. This relaxation maximum is tentatively ascribed to the motion of grain boundaries or dislocations, which are pinned by precipitates in γ-TiAl. The precipitates dissolve at temperatures above 1350 K and form again below 1200 K. No relaxation is observed in polycrystalline TiAl with a carbon content in the range from 0.009 to 0.22 at.% at temperatures below 900 K. This behaviour may be an indication of hardening by finely dispersed precipitates, as observed in TEM and SEM micrographs.     

Creep behaviour of a cast TiAl-based alloy for industrial applications

The creep behaviour of a cast TiAl-based alloy with nominal chemical composition Ti–46Al–2W–0.5Si (at.%) was investigated. Constant load tensile creep tests were performed in the temperature range 973–1073 K and at applied stresses ranging from 200 to 390 MPa. The minimum creep rate is found to depend strongly on the applied stress and temperature. The power law stress exponent n is determined to be 7.3 and true activation energy for creep Q is calculated to be 405 kJ/mol. The initial microstructure of the alloy is unstable during creep exposure. The transformation of the α₂(Ti₃Al)-phase to the γ(TiAl)-phase, needle-like B2 particles and fine Ti₅Si₃ precipitates and particle coarsening are observed. Ordinary dislocations in the γ-matrix dominate the deformation microstructures at creep strains lower than 1.5%. The dislocations are elongated in the screw orientation and form local cusps, which are frequently associated with the jogs on the screw segments of dislocations. Fine B2 and Ti₅Si₃ precipitates act as effective obstacles to dislocation motion. The kinetics of the creep deformation within the studied temperature range and applied stresses is proposed to be controlled by non-conservative motion of dislocations.     

Effects of alloying elements on creep of TiAl alloys with a fine lamellar structure

Creep experiments were conducted on five powder-metallurgy TiAl alloys with fine grains (65–80 μm), fine lamellar spacings (0.1–0.16 μm), and different compositions [Ti–47Al (+Cr, Nb, Ta, W, Si)] at temperatures of 760°C and 815°C and stresses from 35 to 723 MPa. Results show that at a given lamellar spacing, replacing 1% Nb (atomic percent) with 1% Ta and replacing 0.2% Ta with 0.2% W induced little effect, but addition of 0.3% Si decreased the creep resistance by a factor of 3–4 under otherwise identical conditions. Field emission TEM was used to characterize the changes of microstructure and alloy element distribution before and after creep. It was found that thinning and dissolution of α₂ lamellae and continuous coarsening of γ lamellae were the main creep processes and the microalloying elements tended to segregate at lamellar interfaces, especially at ledges during creep. The effects of different alloying elements are interpreted in terms of the interaction of alloy segregants with misfit and/or misorientation dislocations at the lamellar interface. That is, the interaction retards the climb of interfacial dislocations and thus the creep process in the case of large segregants (Nb, Ta, W), but facilitates the climb and creep in the case of small segregants (Si).     

Selective dissolution of nanolamellar Ti–41 at.% Al alloy single crystals

The selective dissolution behavior of Ti–41 at.% Al single crystals having a α₂/γ-lamellar structure with a lamellar thickness in the range 20 nm to 1 μm have been investigated in 0.5 M NaCl aqueous solution focusing on the effect of lamellar thickness on the dissolution of γ-lamellae. In the case where γ-lamellae were thicker than ～100 nm on average, γ-lamellae were selectively dissolved and, as a result, crevasses whose widths were close to the γ-lamellae thicknesses were formed. However, not all γ-lamellae were dissolved and the distribution of crevasses was much less uniform compared with that of the γ-lamellae. On the other hand, when the average γ-lamellae thickness was <100 nm relatively thick γ-lamellae were preferentially dissolved, but the distribution of the crevasses was relatively uniform compared with that obtained from the coarse lamellar structure. The reasons for this difference are discussed from the viewpoint of the absence of misfit dislocations in nanoscaled lamellae and the difference in ion transport through crevasses of different width formed by dissolution of γ-lamellae.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of MoSi2/TaSi2 two-phase alloys

Effects of pre-strain on the compressive mechanical behavior were investigated on the alloys with an aligned lamellar microstructure consisting of C11_b MoSi₂ and C40 TaSi₂ prepared through optical floating zone (OFZ) method and annealing in the two-phase MoSi₂/TaSi₂ region. Single crystals of C40 TaSi₂ were successfully grown at solidification rate of 5 or 10 mm/h, and well-aligned lamellar microstructure can be achieved by selecting an MoSi₂–17 mol% TaSi₂ alloy. Firstly, compression tests were conducted to examine the effect of the angle ϕ between the aligned lamellae and the loading axis on strength and ductility. Results indicate that ϕ = 0, lamellae parallel to the axis, is a hard-orientation and ϕ = 54 and 40 (identically 45) are soft orientations. The alloy with ϕ = 0 shows higher strength but lower ductility than those with ϕ = 54 and 40 where ductility is evaluated in terms of brittle-to-ductile transition temperature (BDTT). Then effects of pre-straining at 1773 K on the mechanical behavior at 1573 K were investigated using soft-oriented lamellar alloys with ϕ = 40 whose BDTT is determined at least lower than 1673 K. Pre-straining to a few to several percent at 1773 K improves ductility of the alloy at 1573 K and also raises 0.2% flow stress, compared with the absence of the pre-strain. We believe that dislocations can be generated and stored in the alloy at 1773 K, and these dislocations are mobile even at 1573 K, although the analyses of operative slip systems and characteristics of dislocations remain as future works.     

Microstructure and some properties of TiAl-Ti2AlC composites produced by reactive processing

The TiAl–Ti₂AlC composites with and without impurities, Ni, Cl and P, were prepared by combustion reaction from the elemental powders and cast after arc melting. The resulting composites had about 18 vol% Ti₂AlC in the lamellar matrix consisting of γ-TiAl and Ti₃Al (α₂). In the homogenized specimens, the α₂ phase decomposed to γ-TiAl and Ti₂AlC. The composite material had a high strength both at ambient and elevated (1173 K) temperatures; about 800 and 400 MPa, respectively, with an ambient temperature ductility of 0.7% at bending test. The fracture toughness test also proved that the homogenized composite has higher toughness than the as cast one. The toughness value reached to 17.8 MPa m^1/2. The zigzag cracks propagated in the homogenized composite and the reinforcement Ti₂AlC particles and the finely precipitated Ti₂AlC particles were main obstacles to the crack propagation. The composite with impurities showed a marginal improvement in the oxidation resistance over the composites without impurities.     

Development of γ phase stacking faults during high temperature creep of Ru-containing single crystal superalloys

An unusual deformation mode involving the formation of intrinsic stacking faults in the γ matrix of experimental Ru-containing γ–γ′ superalloys with high Co and Re contents during high temperature creep at 950 °C/290 MPa has been observed. The morphology, distribution and dependence of these stacking faults on alloy chemistry has been investigated along with their formation mechanism. Additions of Re and Co substantially decrease the stacking fault energy of the γ matrix. The observed stacking faults in the γ matrix form by the dissociation of a/2〈1 1 0〉 matrix dislocations with Burgers vectors perpendicular to the loading direction in the early stages of creep. The dependence of creep properties on elemental additions that influence stacking fault energy is discussed.     

Microstructural stability of a cast Ti–45.2Al–2W–0.6Si–0.7B alloy at temperatures 973–1073 K

Microstructural stability of a cast intermetallic Ti–45.2Al–2W–0.6Si–0.7B (at.%) alloy after ageing in the temperature range from 973 to 1073 K up to 10,000 h was studied. The microstructure of the alloy consists of lamellar and TiAl-rich regions. Lamellar regions consist of fine lamellae of γ(TiAl) and α₂(Ti₃Al) phases, fine B2 and Ti₅Si₃ precipitates on the lamellar interfaces. Fine α₂ lamellae are partially decomposed before ageing. Small volume fraction of coarse B2 particles and few ribbon-like borides were found within lamellar regions. TiAl-rich regions contain coarse α₂ lamellae, rod-like B2 particles, small volume fraction of coarse Ti₅Si₃ precipitates and ribbon-like borides. The as-received microstructure of the alloy is unstable during long-term ageing at temperatures ranging from 973 to 1073 K. The α₂ phase in the lamellar and TiAl-rich regions transforms to the γ phase and fine needle-like B2 precipitates. The microstructural instabilities lead to softening of the alloy. The microhardness decrease is measured to be faster in the lamellar regions compared to that in the TiAl-rich regions.     

In situ TEM straining of single crystal Au films on polyimide: Change of deformation mechanisms at the nanoscale

In situ transmission electron microscopy straining experiments were performed on 40, 60, 80 and 160 nm thick single crystalline Au films on polyimide substrates. A transition in deformation mechanisms was observed with decreasing film thickness: the 160 nm thick film deforms predominantly by perfect dislocations while thinner films deform mainly by partial dislocations separated by stacking faults. In contrast to the 160 nm thick film, interfacial dislocation segments are rarely laid down by threading dislocations for the thinner films. At the late stages of deformation in the thicker Au films prior to fracture, dislocations start to glide on the (0 0 1) planes (cube-glide) near the interface with the polymer substrate. The impact of size-dependent dislocation mechanisms on thin film plasticity is addressed.     

Effects of boron on phase transformation of high Nb containing TiAl-based alloy

The effect of 0.7 at% boron on the phase transformation of Ti–46.5Al–8Nb during a range of different continuous cooling rates from the alpha single phase region has been investigated. In addition the microstructure of Ti–46.5Al–8Nb and Ti–46.5Al–8Nb–0.7B during water quenching at a range of different temperatures near the alpha transus temperature (T_α) has been examined. It has been found that the trend of the variation of microstructures with different cooling rates is the same in the two alloys varying from massive gamma (γ_m) to lamellar, but boron addition increases the cooling rate to obtain these microstructures. During water quenching at different temperatures (T₁ ≅ T_α, T₂ < T_α, and T₃ ≪ T_α) boron addition has a very strong effect on the trend of the variation of microstructures.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of a spark plasma sinteredTi–45Al–8.5Nb–0.2W–0.2B–0.1Y alloy

A high Nb containing TiAl alloy from pre-alloyed powder of Ti–45Al–8.5Nb–0.2B–0.2W–0.1Y was processed by spark plasma sintering (SPS). The effects of sintering temperature on the microstructure and mechanical properties were studied. The optimized conditions yield high densities and uniform microstructure. Specimens sintered at 1100 °C are characterized by fine duplex microstructure, leading to superior room temperature mechanical properties with a tensile strength of 1024 MPa and an elongation of 1.16%. Specimens sintered at 1200 °C are of fully lamellar microstructure with a tensile strength of 964 MPa and an elongation of 0.88%. The main fracture mode in the duplex microstructure was transgranular in the equiaxed γ grains and interlamellar in the lamellar colonies. For the fully lamellar structure, the fracture mode was dominated by interlamellar, translamellar and stepwise failure.     

Plasticity of indium antimonide between −176 °C and 400 °C under hydrostatic pressure. Part II: Microscopic aspects of the deformation

Indium antimonide (InSb) has been plastically deformed over a wide temperature range, from 400 down to ?176 °C (see the companion paper: Kedjar B, Thilly L, Demenet JL, Rabier J. Acta Mater 2009) and transmission electron microscopy was used to characterize the deformation microstructures. In the ductile regime, i.e. T > T_tr1 ≈ 150 °C, the crystal deforms via the nucleation and motion of perfect dislocations belonging to the glide set. In the brittle domain, i.e. for T < T_tr1 ≈ 150 °C, two regimes are observed: for T_tr2 ≈ 20 °C < T < T_tr1 ≈ 150 °C, the crystal deformation takes place via the nucleation and glide of dissociated perfect dislocations or only leading partials, while for T < T_tr2 ≈ 20 °C, the crystal deformation proceeds via the nucleation and motion of perfect dislocations belonging to the shuffle set. In view of these observations, the brittle-to-ductile transition (at T_tr1) is confirmed to correspond to a change in the dislocation nature in the glide set, from partial-mediated plasticity at low temperature to perfect-mediated plasticity at high temperature. Another transition is observed at T_tr2 and corresponds to the glide-to-shuffle transition which is observed experimentally for the first time in a III–V compound semiconductor.     

Microstructural control through seeding and directional solidification of TiAl alloys containing Mo and C

Seeding of the high temperature α phase was used to control the final lamellar orientation of directionally solidified TiAl alloys. Alloys of TiAl containing small amounts (less than 1.5 at.%) of Mo and C were investigated as possible seed materials. Suitable seed compositions were determined by quickly heating specimens to a temperature just below the melting temperature, holding, and then cooling to room temperature. A small composition window in the Ti–Al–Mo and Ti–Al–Mo–C systems suitable for the seeding approach was identified in which the original lamellar orientation was restored after heat treatment. Directional solidification experiments between 5 and 40 mm/h were performed to produce ingots with an aligned lamellar microstructure. The directionally solidified ingots were found to exhibit a high yield stress with a reasonably large tensile elongation at room temperature.     

Creep mechanisms in Ti–3Al–2.5V alloy tubing deformed under closed-end internal gas pressurization

Creep tests were carried out on Ti–3Al–2.5V alloy tubing in the temperature range of 723–873 K under closed-end internal pressurization. The data thus obtained were analyzed to obtain the mechanistic creep parameters (stress exponent and activation energy). Transitions in creep mechanisms were noted as the stress exponent varied from a lower value of 1 through 2 to a higher value of 5 with increasing stress where the activation energy assumed values of 232 and 325 kJ mol⁻¹, respectively. The creep mechanisms were elucidated in the light of standard creep models supported by the substructures studied by transmission electron microscopy. Newtonian viscous creep (n = 1) at lower stresses was identified to be in accordance with a slip band model named after Spingarn and Nix. Grain boundary sliding with n = 2 was noted in an intermediate stress region while climb of edge dislocations was observed to control creep at higher stresses. Microstructural observations along with parametric variations of creep rates were useful in identifying the underlying deformation mechanisms.     

Creep of cast Fe–36Al–2Ti alloy

Creep of an alloy based on the intermetallic compound FeAl with Ti addition was studied by compressive tests at constant stress in the temperature range from 873 to 973 K. The stress exponent n and the activation energy of creep Q were determined for the minimum creep rate. The stress exponent is slightly decreasing with increasing temperature. Its value is in agreement with stress exponents reported for Fe–Al alloys with similar additions of titanium. The values of n together with the observed shapes of the creep curves are consistent with the expected behaviour for solid solution hardened alloys where the dislocation motion is controlled by viscous glide of dislocations. Annealing of the alloy for 2 h at 1423 K with subsequent oil-quenching had no influence on the minimum creep rate in comparison with the as-cast material. On the other hand, this annealing accelerated “the inverse primary behaviour”.     

The influence of alloying on the α2/(α2+γ)/γ phase boundaries in TiAl based systems

By employing both experimental and theoretical approaches, a comparative study of the α₂/(α₂+γ)/γ phase boundaries in some Ti–Al–X (X=Nb, Ta, V, Cr, Mn, Fe or Ga) systems has been carried out. The phase constitution of Ti–(33–51 at.%)Al–(1–3 at.%)X alloys with a composition step of 1 at.% Al was determined experimentally by using the X-ray diffraction method on bulk samples equilibrated at 1173 K. The α₂/(α₂+γ) and (α₂+γ)/γ phase boundaries were calculated using a model that describes the phase boundaries in terms of sublattice site occupancies of alloying species in the two ordered phases. The differences between the predicted and experimentally determined phase boundaries were found to be less than about 1 at.% in most cases. The predicted volume fractions of constituent phases were also compared with experimental measurements by a combination of metallography and transmission electron microscopy. Agreement between the two is good for 14 ternary and two quaternary alloys containing 46 at.% Al. The present work suggests that, in the order of increasing strength of stabilization at 1173 K, V, Nb and Ta stabilize the α₂ phase, whereas Cr, Mn, Fe and Ga stabilize the γ phase.     

Characterization of titanium aluminide alloy components fabricated by additive manufacturing using electron beam melting

Intermetallic, γ-TiAl, equiaxed, small-grain (～2 μm) structures with lamellar γ/α₂-Ti₃Al colonies with average spacing of 0.6 μm have been fabricated by additive manufacturing using electron beam melting (EBM) of precursor, atomized powder. The residual microindentation (Vickers) hardness (HV) averaged 4.1 GPa, corresponding to a nominal yield strength of ～1.4 GPa (～HV/3), and a specific yield strength of 0.37 GPa cm³ g^?1 (for a density of 3.76 g cm^?3), in contrast to 0.27 GPa cm³ g^?1 for EBM-fabricated Ti–6Al–4V components. These results demonstrate the potential to fabricate near net shape and complex titanium aluminide products directly using EBM technology in important aerospace and automotive applications.     

Creep- and coarsening properties of Al–0.06 at.% Sc–0.06 at.% Ti at 300–450 °C

Upon aging at 300–450 °C, nanosize, coherent Al₃(Sc_1−xTi_x) precipitates are formed in pure aluminum micro-alloyed with 0.06 at.% Sc and 0.06 at.% Ti. The outstanding coarsening resistance of these precipitates at these elevated temperatures (61–77% of the melting temperature of aluminum) is explained by the significantly smaller diffusivity of Ti in Al when compared to that of Sc in Al. Furthermore, this coarse-grained alloy exhibits good compressive creep resistance for a castable, heat-treatable aluminum alloy: the creep threshold stress varies from 17 MPa at 300 °C to 7 MPa at 425 °C, as expected if the climb bypass by dislocations of the mismatching precipitates is hindered by their elastic stress fields.