Children's beliefs about intelligence and school performance.

The study was designed, first, to explore associations among children's beliefs about intelligence and effort, goal orientations, self-reported learning strategies, and academic achievement. Assessments of all variables were conducted twice over 1 school year on 319 children in Grades 3–6. Results indicate that the belief that intelligence is relatively fixed was associated with the beliefs that performance is relatively stable and that intelligence is global in its effects on performance. This set of beliefs was differentiated from the belief that effort has positive effects on intelligence and performance. Children's beliefs in intelligence as fixed and affecting performance were negatively associated with academic achievement, but a path analysis provided only modest support for the hypothesis that the effect of such beliefs would be mediated by a performance goal orientation and accompanying superficial learning strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's normative beliefs about aggression and aggressive behavior.

Normative beliefs have been defined as self-regulating beliefs about the appropriateness of social behaviors. In 2 studies the authors revised their scale for assessing normative beliefs about aggression, found that it is reliable and valid for use with elementary school children, and investigated the longitudinal relation between normative beliefs about aggression and aggressive behavior in a large sample of elementary school children living in poor urban neighborhoods. Using data obtained in 2 waves of observations 1 year apart, the authors found that children tended to approve more of aggression as they grew older and that this increase appeared to be correlated with increases in aggressive behavior. More important, although individual differences in aggressive behavior predicted subsequent differences in normative beliefs in younger children, individual differences in aggressive behavior were predicted by preceding differences in normative beliefs in older children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's differentiation between beliefs about matters of fact and matters of opinion.

Two experiments investigated children's implicit and explicit differentiation between beliefs about matters of fact and matters of opinion. In Experiment 1, 8- to 9-year-olds' (n = 88) explicit understanding of the subjectivity of opinions was found to be limited, but their conformity to others' judgments on a matter of opinion was considerably lower than their conformity to others' views regarding an ambiguous fact. In Experiment 2, children aged 6, 8, or 10 years (n = 81) were asked to make judgments either about ambiguous matters of fact or about matters of opinion and then heard an opposing judgment from an expert. All age groups conformed to the opposing judgments on factual matters more than they did to the experts' views on matters of opinion. However, only the oldest children explicitly recognized that opinions are subjective and cannot be "wrong." Implications of these results for models of children's reasoning about epistemic states are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's beliefs about the causes of success and failure in school settings.

A total of 144 1st-, 3rd-, and 5th graders were interviewed to determine what they saw as probable causes for success or failure in 4 situations: performing in a school testing situation, doing well or poorly in an art project for the classroom, playing football, and catching frogs. Open-ended data were coded into 19 categories using a modified version of T. Elig and the 1st author's (1975) Coding Scheme of Perceived Causality. Causal explanations differed across the 4 situations. Testing situations were seen as the most internalized and the most under the control of the child. Some grade level, ability level, and sex differences in the types of categories used were also found. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's beliefs about familiar and unfamiliar peers in relation to their sociometric status.

Examined children's general beliefs about familiar and unfamiliar peers in relationship to their sociometric status and their experience with parents. In the initial phase involving 886 4th and 5th graders, submissive rejected children but not aggressive rejected children reported less positive beliefs about peers than average status children. In the 2nd portion, which included 77 boys and girls from the larger sample, no relationship between children's sociometric status and their beliefs about unfamiliar peers was found. Beliefs about unfamiliar peers were related, however, to children's perception of the amount of acceptance and support they received from parents. Implications of these findings for children's social competence are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's attention to beliefs in interactive persuasion tasks.

Whether and when children can apply their developing understanding of belief to persuasion was examined using interactive puppet tasks. Children selected 1 of 2 arguments to persuade a puppet to do something (e.g., pet a dog) after hearing the puppet's belief (e.g., "I think puppies bite"). Across 2 studies, 132 children (ages 3-7 years) engaged in these persuasion tasks and in false-belief reasoning tasks, presented in puppet and story formats. Belief-relevant argument selection increased with age, as did appropriate reasoning about false beliefs, and occurred more in puppet than story tasks. Results suggest that improvements in belief reasoning in early childhood may be reflected in social interactions such as persuasion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's action-control beliefs about school performance: How do American children compare with German and Russian children?

Using the revised Control, Agency, and Means–ends Interview (T. D. Little, G. Oettingen, & P. B. Baltes, 1995), we compared American children's (Grades 2–6) action–control beliefs about school performance with those of German and Russian children (Los Angeles, n?=?657; East Berlin, n?=?313; West Berlin, n?=?517; Moscow, n?=?541). Although we found pronounced cross-setting similarities in the children's everyday causality beliefs about what factors produce school performance, we obtained consistent cross-setting differences in (1) the mean levels of the children's personal agency and control expectancy and (2) the correlational magnitudes between these beliefs and actual school performance. Notably, the American children were at the extremes of the cross-national distributions: (1) they had the highest mean levels of personal agency and control expectancy but (2) the lowest beliefs–performance correlations. Such outcomes indicate that the low beliefs–performance correlations that are frequently obtained in American research appear to be specific to American settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Older women's beliefs about physical activity

Physical activity may contribute to important health and well-being outcomes among older adults. Efforts to understand determinants of physical activity are necessary to plan effective interventions. The theory of planned behavior has been successfully applied to a variety of health behaviors. Previous research using the theory of planned behavior has not addressed beliefs about overall physical activity among community-dwelling older women. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 30 older women to identify behavioral beliefs, perceived control beliefs, and normative beliefs, which influence physical activity decisions. Content analyses of responses revealed three major themes: social influences on physical activity, psychosocial benefits of activity, and joint problems and fatigue as factors that interfere with activity. These findings about physical activity were compared with published findings about episodic exercise among 30 similar women who took part in an episodic exercise study. The result was the discovery that the women in this study talked about physical activity as embedded in their social lives while the women in the episodic exercise study viewed exercise as separate from their daily lives. These findings of beliefs about overall physical activity suggest a social model may be useful in planning public health interventions to increase activity among older women.     

Children's action-control beliefs and emotional regulation in the social domain.

In a short-term longitudinal study of 314 U.S. military-dependent children (Grades 2-6) in Berlin, Germany, we examined whether children's coping strategies mediate the relations between their action-control beliefs and anxiety. The results provided only limited support for a mediational hypothesis. At both times of measurement, self-related agency beliefs related to (a) increased prosocial coping, (b) reduced antisocial coping, and (c) reduced anxiety. Prosocial coping was not uniquely related to anxiety. However, antisocial coping did partially mediate the relations between children's action-control beliefs and anxiety over time. Consistent with previous literature, boys reported using antisocial coping more than did girls, and younger children reported using primary control coping strategies more than did older children. Results are discussed in terms of lifespan differences in the development of coping strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

General practice patients' beliefs about their symptoms

BACKGROUND: Patients' beliefs about symptoms are major influences on consultation and its consequences. However, little information is available about the beliefs of patients when they consult their general practitioner (GP). AIM: To describe and quantify the range of beliefs of patients about their symptoms before consultation, and to test the hypothesis that patients who attribute symptoms to stress or lifestyle would expect less benefit than others from physical medicine but more from lifestyle change and emotional support. METHOD: Interviews with 100 patients attending one of two general practices were used to form a questionnaire, which was completed by 406 patients attending one of three general practices in contrasting areas of Greater London. This measured the frequency of specific beliefs about the causes of their symptoms and about effective forms of help. Patients were seen before their consultation. RESULTS: The most common aetiological beliefs concerned stress and lifestyle. In general, the mechanisms underlying symptoms were thought to be disturbances in bodily functioning rather than pathological processes. The most valued form of help was explanation and discussion of symptoms. Nevertheless, about half the patients expected benefit from medication and only slightly fewer from hospital investigation or treatment. Patients who attributed symptoms to stress or lifestyle were no less likely to expect help from medication or specialist referral, but they were more likely to see benefit in explanation and counselling or lifestyle change. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest hypotheses for future research into the effects that patients' attributions of their symptoms to stress and lifestyle have on their health care demands, emphasize the importance of routinely assessing patients' beliefs on consulting the GP, and provide information that can help to direct this assessment in the individual case.     

Individual differences in beliefs about groups.

The current research examined individual differences in peoples' positive versus negative beliefs about groups. Three studies were conducted to develop and validate a 16-item Beliefs About Groups (BAG) scale. Factor analyses in Studies 1 and 2 identified and replicated a 4-factor solution, with factors reflecting preferences for group versus individual work, positive group performance beliefs, negative group performance beliefs, and beliefs that others will work hard on group tasks. Study 2 also provided evidence for convergent and divergent validity, and explored relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and group beliefs. Study 3 provided evidence for test–retest reliability. Across these 3 studies, the BAG scale had total score alphas ranging from .83 to .88. Implications of beliefs about groups for member motivation and group performance, as well as for future research and practice, are highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental beliefs about managing sibling conflict.

This study examined the correspondence between parents' beliefs about the most effective ways to manage sibling conflict and their responses to their children's spontaneous sibling conflicts. Eighty-eight 2-child, 2-parent families participated in 3 home sessions. Second-born children were 3–5 years old, and firstborn children were 2–4 years older. Parents' use of a particular conflict management strategy was based, in part, on their perception of how effective the strategy was and how well they could carry out the strategy. For example, mothers' use of child-centered strategies was predicted by their belief that parental control strategies were ineffective. Fathers' use of control strategies was predicted by their low confidence in enacting child-centered techniques. Although both mothers and fathers perceived child-centered and control strategies as more effective than passive nonintervention, parents engaged in passive nonintervention most often. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' and students' beliefs about punishment.

360 1st, 3rd and 5th graders and their 16 teachers from 3 school systems were interviewed in the fall and spring of the same school year to assess the developing relationship between teachers' and students' beliefs about punishment. Older children were less punitive than younger children. Teachers remained relatively punitive compared with 5th graders. Teachers with more punitive beliefs had students whose beliefs were more punitive when compared with students whose teachers had less punitive beliefs. Children and teachers thought that teachers should give more punitive responses than peers for the same misbehavior. The school systems that allowed corporal punishment had students with more punitive beliefs than the school system without corporal punishment. Results indicate that the school environment is perceived to be authoritarian and punitive by students and teachers. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's metacognitive knowledge about reading.

Children's metacognitive awareness of variables that influence reading was assessed in an interview study. 20 2nd and 20 6th graders answered questions about the effects of personal abilities, task parameters, and cognitive strategies involved in reading. Although 2nd graders were aware of the influence of some reading dimensions such as interest, familiarity, and length, they were less sensitive to the semantic structure of paragraphs, goals of reading, and strategies for resolving comprehension failures than 6th graders. Age-related differences in metacognitive knowledge may be correlated with the acquisition of efficient memory, problem-solving, and reading skills. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's beliefs about substance use: An examination of age differences in implicit and explicit cognitive precursors of substance use initiation.

Cognitive models conceptualize attitudes and beliefs about substance use (SU) as proximal mediators of a variety of risk and protective factors for SU. Researchers have distinguished implicit and explicit cognition, but limited research has examined this distinction in the early stages of SU. The authors' goal was to examine age differences in implicit and explicit SU cognitions to clarify proximal cognitive processes that may be involved in early SU. Alcohol- and cigarette-naive children (N=76; 69.7% male; M age=11.8 years) completed the laboratory-based experiment. Likelihood ratings of costs and benefits of use assessed explicit cognitions, and a priming task assessed implicit cognitions. Regardless of age, children perceived costs of drinking alcohol and smoking as more likely than benefits. This discrepancy was smaller for older children, although this age difference was weaker for costs and benefits of cigarette use. Strong positive implicit alcohol use cognitions were apparent regardless of age. However, age differences were found for implicit cigarette use cognition. Older children were more positive about cigarette use. Findings suggest the importance of distinguishing explicit and implicit cognition for etiological models of early SU. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Erroneous beliefs about research held by staff nurses

BACKGROUND: Experiences in working with nurses conducting research in clinical settings have uncovered a number of beliefs that may create unnecessary obstacles and limit research efforts. This article discusses these beliefs and provides examples. METHOD: Although this article was not conceptualized as a research study, the information was gleaned through working with nurses on a day-to-day basis as a researcher. RESULTS: Eleven beliefs were identified and discussed. CONCLUSION: These beliefs have implications for nurses who are attempting to conduct clinical research. The intent of the article is to educate nurses regarding the philosophy of science and research methods in this context.     

Parents' beliefs about their children's cognitive abilities.

Examined mothers' judgments of their children's cognitive abilities and the relation between such judgments and the child's developmental level. 49 1st-grade children responded to tasks drawn from either the Piagetian literature or the Stanford-Binet IQ tests. Ss also completed a vocabulary test drawn from the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). Subsequently, each S's mother was asked various questions about probable response, both for her own child and for children in general. Results reveal that mothers were more accurate in predicting their child's success or failure on the IQ items than on the Piaget items. In both conditions, overestimations of ability were more common than underestimations. Estimates of age of mastery also showed overestimation, in some cases by several years. Data collected from 12 fathers indicate that fathers' patterns of response were similar to those of their wives. The correlations between accurate predictions by the mother and correct answers by the child were .85 in the Piaget condition and .49 in the IQ condition. Findings are compatible with the match hypothesis, which posits that the mother's knowledge of her child enables her to create an optimally challenging environment. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Knowledge and beliefs about confidentiality in psychotherapy.

Surveyed 200 high school students, 308 undergraduate psychology students, 34 former clients from a community mental health center, and 40 former clients from a university counseling center regarding their knowledge of and attitudes toward confidentiality in therapy. Overall results show that the vast majority of Ss viewed confidentiality as an all-encompassing, superordinate mandate for the psychology profession and that most Ss wanted to be told of the limitations to confidentiality but would have limited therapeutic communications when told. It is concluded that the general population, including those who have been in therapy, does not have an accurate perception of current ethical limitations regarding confidentiality in psychotherapy. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)