Determination of the complete microscale residual stress tensor at a subsurface carbide particle in a single-crystal superalloy from free-surface EBSD

This paper describes a method for developing the capability of the inverse problem of eigenstrain in allowing for the determination of the spatially varying multiaxial residual stresses at the microscale level, based on the assumption that the residual stresses are due to an inelastic misfit strain (eigenstrain). Carbide particles in superalloy MAR-M-002 subjected to thermally induced strains due to mismatched thermal expansion coefficients have been studied in this work. We take as a starting point the residual elastic strain tensor measured by cross-correlation-based analysis of electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD) patterns obtained from the surface of a sample sectioned through the carbide particle. From this we calculate the multiaxial residual stresses that existed in the sample prior to sectioning. In addition, a finite-element simulation of the inverse problem of eigenstrain has been carried out to validate numerically the inverse method.     

电弧增材制造钛合金界面处残余应力及其影响研究

采用电弧增材制造方法制备了含增材/基材界面钛合金板,采用轮廓法测量了其残余应力分布。建立了模拟紧凑拉伸(C(T))试样加工和裂纹扩展过程中残余应力发展的有限元模型,缺口状态C(T)试样内残余应力分布与轮廓法测试结果吻合良好。采用该模型讨论了试样内残余应力随裂纹扩展的变化规律及对裂纹扩展的影响。试验和数值分析结果表明:2种类型试样缺口状态的残余应力分布有很大差别,A类试样(缺口位于基材)残余压应力区域靠近缺口根部,C类试样(缺口位于增材)残余压应力区域远离缺口根部;A类试样内残余应力随裂纹扩展迅速释放,残余应力引起的应力强度因子较小;C类试样内残余应力随裂纹扩展变化较小,残余应力引起的应力强度因子较高,降低了疲劳裂纹扩展寿命。     

Internal residual stress measurement on inertia friction welding of nickel-based superalloy

The internal residual stress in the narrow inertia friction welding (IFW) welds of FGH96 nickel-based superalloy was measured with the contour method (CM). The as-welded internal hoop and axial residual stresses were obtained after two cuts and the detailed steps of the CM measurement were described. In addition, the hole-drilling method was used to obtain the surface stress. Furthermore, the internal hoop residual stress of a FGH96 superalloy IFW specimen after post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) was also measured with the CM after a single cut. The measured results show that the peak hoop residual stress is not symmetrical about the weld centreline. Axial residual stress on the outer surface at the weld centreline is compressive stress, while tensile stress appears on the inner surface, and it varies linearly along the thickness. The peak values of hoop tensile and compressive stresses decrease dramatically after PWHT.     

Assessment of residual stress of welded structural steel plates with or without post weld rolling using the contour method and neutron diffraction

The post-welding rolling technique was used to modify the welding residual stress profile of butt joints of S355 structural steel. Two different residual stress measurement techniques were used: contour method and neutron diffraction. A good agreement between the results of both measurement techniques was found, illustrating the capability of the contour method to provide data otherwise available only using costly neutron and synchrotron radiation. The effect of post-weld roller tensioning on residual stress consisted in a substantial change in residual stress profile, with the large tensile stresses along the weld seam becoming compressive     

基于本征应变法修正厚板轮廓法应力测试误差

基于本征应变法,以轮廓法测试的部分内部应力数据为基础构造出切割面上的整体纵向应力分布,修正轮廓法测试切割面上的表面应力误差,并研究了本征应变阶数对构造结果的影响.结果表明,本征应变法构造出的切割面上纵向应力分布与轮廓法测试结果符合较好,表层应力相比于轮廓法测试值提高了约27%;构造出的表面应力与XRD法测试结果符合较好,一定程度上能修正轮廓法表层纵向应力测试误差;沿切割面x方向和y方向本征应变基函数阶数采用16次和10次,能构造出较好的纵向应力场.     

Efficient numerical prediction of residual stress and deformation for large-scale laser shock processing using the eigenstrain methodology

Laser shock processing (LSP) is an effective but costly process for inducing compressive residual stresses and deformation that are primarily applied in the aerospace industry. Accurate modeling of the LSP process with optimization is helpful to reduce development time and cost, but the simulation time is computationally expensive due to the long duration to capture the transient response of the material for each shock. In the present research, the eigenstrain modeling method is developed to predict the effect of large-scale LSP more efficiently compared with previous methods. In the developed eigenstrain-based method, residual stress and deformation fields are analyzed elastically using the simulated eigenstrain as initial strain, which is incorporated into the model by thermal expansion with a predefined unit temperature field and different anisotropic thermal expansion coefficients. For the large-scale LSP application, the eigenstrain in one representative cell identified through an explicit analysis is proposed as an approximation of the actual full eigenstrain field for efficient prediction. The predictions are verified by the predicted results from the explicit/implicit method for laser peening (LP) and the pure explicit method for laser peen forming (LPF) and are also validated by the experimental results of a single LP surface treatment of Ti6Al4V and a LPF bending of 1060 pure aluminum plates. Compared with the previous methods, the eigenstrain modeling method is proved to be effective and much more computationally efficient.     

轮廓法测量残余应力研究进展

轮廓法是一种基于截面解剖法的残余应力测量方法,可以获得目标平面法向的残余应力二维分布云图。经过20多年的发展与完善,轮廓法已经被广泛应用在航空航天、核电、高端装备制造等许多重要领域,尤其适用于焊接件、金属连接件和异型工件的残余应力测量。文中详细介绍了轮廓法测量的优势,分析了轮廓法测量的理论依据、测量步骤、误差修正、拓展应用、试验验证及研究热点,深入探究在一次切割轮廓法测量基础上发展起来的多次切割轮廓法、断裂轮廓法和X射线衍射法的叠加测量、近表面残余应力轮廓法测量等方法,这些方法克服了常规轮廓法测量断面应力、近表面应力方面的技术限制,可获得工程结构件的三维残余应力分布,针对不同的工程应用需求调整切割方法及测量方案以提供技术支持,拓展了轮廓法测量的应用范围。该文旨在为国内的同行提供参考,助力轮廓法在国内科学研究和工程应用方面的推广应用。 创新点： (1)对比常用的工程残余应力测量方法,明晰轮廓法测量的技术优势及其适用范围。(2)分析轮廓法测量过程中可能引入的试验误差,提出相对应的解决方法。(3)拓展轮廓法的应用范围以满足三维应力测量需求。     

基于轮廓法测试镍基高温合金惯性摩擦焊接头内部残余应力

采用轮廓法(contour method)测试小直径FGH96镍基高温合金惯性摩擦焊接接头的内部环向应力。详细介绍了轮廓法测试步骤,包括试样切割、切割面轮廓测试、数据处理和有限元分析;获得了FGH96镍基高温合金惯性摩擦焊接接头内部环向应力分布全貌并分析其分布特征。测试结果表明:镍基高温合金惯性摩擦焊接接头的焊缝中心位置环向应力为非常大的拉应力,峰值拉应力为1200 MPa,达到材料室温时的屈服强度;焊缝区域(距焊缝中心±5 mm区域)近内壁区域的环向应力大于外壁区域环向应力,垂直焊缝方向的环向应力变化梯度非常大;远离焊缝区域,焊缝两侧的环向应力不对称。     

Welding of corrosion-resisting steels to titanium alloys

Summary

This paper describes a new method for measurement of the three‐dimensional residual stresses in fillet welds using inherent strains, which are considered to be a source of residual stresses. The new method implies first the inherent strains being determined from a few measured elastic strains with the aid of a proposed inherent strain distribution function, and second the residual stresses being calculated through an elastic analysis when the inherent strains are applied to welded joints.

The measurement method is called the TL_yL_z method when three types of T, L_y and L_z specimen are cut from the fillet weld, and the T method when only one specimen T is cut from the weld.

The TL_yL_z and T methods are respectively used to measure three‐dimensional residual stress distributions on the transverse sections of single‐pass and multipass T‐type fillet welds. The residual stresses measured by the TL_yL₂ and T methods show good agreement with the ones directly measured on the surfaces of welded joints, thus demonstrating the validity and practical applicability of the proposed method.     

Measurement of residual stress in steel using the magnetic Barkhausen noise technique

Surface residual stresses on a structural beam steel sample were evaluated using a non-destructive technique based on the measurement of surface magnetic Barkhausen noise (MBN). MBN measurements were performed using a high resolution probe consisting of a small magnetic read head mounted between the poles of a ferrite U-core magnet. Applied stress magnitudes were correlated to MBN energy levels for calibration purposes. MBN energy measurements were done at various locations on the steel sample. The magnitude of the residual stress component along the sample beam axis was evaluated across the width of the beam using these calibration curves. The range of sensitivity of the MBN signal to stress as defined by the calibration curves was limited by the direction of easy magnetization. The effect of stress on the MBN signal was interpreted in terms of the active 180° domain wall population. The validity of the residual stress results was confirmed experimentally using conventional methods: cutting and sectioning and hole drilling. Possible sources of residual stresses and their distribution on the structural steel specimen are discussed.     

Numerical prediction and neutron diffraction measurement of the residual stresses for a modified 9Cr–1Mo steel weld

A modified 9Cr–1Mo steel provides extremely good mechanical properties at a high temperature when produced and heat treated, and thus the interest in the weld characteristics of a modified 9Cr–1Mo steel is increasing due to its potentiality for an application to modern power plants and advanced reactor systems. For the design and fabrication of stable welded structures, the effects of residual stress and deformation need to be estimated. The objective of this paper is to compare the measured residual stresses for modified 9Cr–1Mo steel welds induced by welding processes and the predicted residual stresses by a numerical simulation. The neutron diffraction technique is used to measure the residual stresses both on the surface and in the interior of a thickness for the welded specimens. A T-plate specimen and a V-butt specimen are prepared and their residual stresses are measured. A finite element model is employed to calculate the transient temperature and the residual stresses. The measured data and the simulation results are compared and the characteristics of a distribution of the residual stresses are discussed.     

Measurement of heat treatment induced residual stresses by using ESPI combined with hole-drilling method

In this study,residual stresses in heat treated specimen were measured by using ESPI(Electronic Speckle-Pattern Interferometry)combined with the hole-drilling method.The specimen,made of SUS 304austenitic stainless steel,was quenched and water cooled to room temperature.Numerical simulation using a hybrid FDM/FEM package was also carried out to simulate the heat treatment process.As a result,the thermal stress fields were obtained from both the experiment and the numerical simulation.By comparision of stress fields,results from the experimental method and numerical simulation well agreed to each other,therefore,it is proved that the presented experimental method is applicable and reliable for heat treatment induced residual stress measurement.     

钻孔法中的残余应力场 Ⅱ.应用

在修正的钻孔法测量残余应力的计算模型的基础上,推导了考虑硬化层时由释放应变表示的残余应力计算公式。以304不锈钢试件受单向均匀拉伸作用为例,将试件内的初始应力视为残余应力。钻孔测量了试件的释放应变,并分别按照不计硬化层和考虑硬化层两种方法计算了试件内的残余应力。同时采用16MnR钢试件在弯曲时的释放应变,分别采用这两种方法计算了试件内的残余应力。通过比较计算残余应力和真实残余应力（即给定的初始应力）,计算了这两种方法的精度。此外,对轿车后桥的焊接残余应力进行了实测。结果表明,硬化层对残余应力的测量会产生明显的影响,从而进一步证明了将硬化层简化为异质圆环的计算模型的合理性和有效性。     

残余应力对管线钢韧性断裂的影响

以弹塑性断裂力学理论为基础,应用ABAQUS有限元软件,采用固有应变法引入残余应力,并基于细观塑性损伤模型研究了残余应力对管线钢韧性裂纹扩展阻力曲线的影响.模型中选择了具有不同深浅裂纹的单边缺口弯曲（SENB）试样和DNV推荐准则中用于管线钢断裂评估的单边缺口拉伸（SENT）试样,并对这两种断裂力学试样在大范围屈服条件下的裂纹扩展阻力曲线（CTOD-R曲线）行为进行了对比分析.结果表明,对于深裂纹试样,残余应力降低了韧性裂纹扩展阻力曲线,而浅裂纹试样受残余应力的影响可忽略不计.     

Internal residual stress measurement on linear friction welding of titanium alloy plates with contour method

The internal residual stress within a TC17 titanium alloy joint welded by linear friction welding (LFW) was measured by the contour method, which is a relatively new and destructive technique to obtain a full map of internal residual stress. The specimen was first cut into two parts; the out-of-plane displacement contour formed by the release of the residual stress was then measured; finally, taking the measured contour of the cut plane as the boundary conditions, a linear elastic finite element analysis was carried out to calculate the corresponding distribution of residual stress normal to the cut plane. The internal stress distribution of the TC17 titanium alloy LFW joint was also analyzed. The results show that the tensile residual stress in the TC17 LFW weld is mainly present within a region about 12 mm from the weld centerline; the peak tensile residual stress occurs at the weld centerline and reaches 360 MPa (about one third of the yield strength of TC17 alloy); within the weld zone of the TC17 LFW weld, the through-thickness stress is not uniform, and the internal stress is larger than that near the top or bottom surface.     

Using Finite Element and Contour Method to Evaluate Residual Stress in Thick Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Welded by Electron Beam Welding

This work was to reveal the residual stress profile in electron beam welded Ti-6Al-4V alloy plates(50 mm thick) by using finite element and contour measurement methods.A three-dimensional finite element model of 50-mmthick titanium component was proposed,in which a column–cone combined heat source model was used to simulate the temperature field and a thermo-elastic–plastic model to analyze residual stress in a weld joint based on ABAQUS software.Considering the uncertainty of welding simulation,the computation was calibrated by experimental data of contour measurement method.Both test and simulated results show that residual stresses on the surface and inside the weld zone are significantly different and present a narrow and large gradient feature in the weld joint.The peak tensile stress exceeds the yield strength of base materials inside weld,which are distinctly different from residual stress of the thin Ti-6Al-4V alloy plates presented in references before.     

GH4169疲劳试样加工残余应力的表征及其对低周疲劳寿命的影响

为了探究GH4169合金低周疲劳试样加工过程中表面残余应力的变化及残余应力对低周疲劳性能的影响,采用X射线衍射法对“车 磨 抛”不同加工工艺的试样表面残余应力进行表征及对成品试样进行残余应力层深度测试,通过中子衍射法对试样内部进行残余应力测试。采用电液伺服万能试验机进行了低周疲劳试验。结果表明：GH4169合金低周疲劳试样加工表面残余应力随着切削量的增加由表面残余压应力变为残余拉应力。根据残余应力层深度测试,机加工对试样表面造成残余应力层深度小于0.01 mm,内部残余拉应力减小;根据疲劳试验结果,GH4169合金疲劳寿命与表面轴向残余压应力呈正相关关系。     

GH4169疲劳试样加工残余应力的表征及其对低周疲劳寿命的影响

为了探究GH4169合金低周疲劳试样加工过程中表面残余应力的变化及残余应力对低周疲劳性能的影响，采用X射线衍射法对“车 磨 抛”不同加工工艺的试样表面残余应力进行表征及对成品试样进行残余应力层深度测试，通过中子衍射法对试样内部进行残余应力测试。采用电液伺服万能试验机进行了低周疲劳试验。结果表明：GH4169合金低周疲劳试样加工表面残余应力随着切削量的增加由表面残余压应力变为残余拉应力。根据残余应力层深度测试，机加工对试样表面造成残余应力层深度小于0.01 mm，内部残余拉应力减小；根据疲劳试验结果，GH4169合金疲劳寿命与表面轴向残余压应力呈正相关关系。     

On the effect of a general residual stress state on indentation and hardness testing

During indentation experiments, residual stresses are superimposed on the applied indentation stress field and influence the measurement of the volume of interest. The residual stress state can vary in magnitude and biaxiality, and the resultant error in the measured hardness is difficult to estimate. A prediction of the effect in the contact pressure with and without residual stresses is carried out by a new model that accounts for nonlinearities caused by the von Mises’ flow rule. The model can also be used for the correction of the effect of a general residual stress state on any further analysis of mechanical properties and stress–strain behaviour from the measured indentation data. The model provides an estimation of the measurement uncertainty when the stress ratio or the strength of the material is unknown – a situation that is a commonly encountered with hardness testing of thin films and welded materials.     

激光辅助氮化工艺中的开裂行为研究

目的研究激光辅助氮化过程中,氮化层的开裂行为。方法利用CO2激光辅助氮化的方法在钛合金表面制备氮化钛涂层,观察氮化层的宏观、微观形貌,分析组织结构特征,测定氮化层残余应力,研究基体厚度、激光扫描工艺参数对氮化层表面形貌和裂纹情况的影响。结果钛合金经单道或多道激光氮化后,表面形成非均匀氮化钛层,其显微结构为沿主干轴交叉生长的枝状晶组织,存在数量和尺寸不等的显微裂纹。较薄试样经单道激光氮化后,表面呈现较低的残余压应力状态,较厚试样则以拉应力为主;试样经多道激光氮化后,整个氮化区表面均呈现残余压应力状态。结论枝状氮化层与基体组织高度结合,不易脱落,但受基体约束作用,氮化层内的拉伸热应力导致其冷却过程中形成微裂纹。随着试样厚度和氮化面积的增加,较高的热应力使得裂纹密度和裂纹尺寸增加,严重影响氮化层的质量。残余应力是热应力和相变应力叠加的结果,对于多道激光氮化工艺而言,大面积氮化使得相变压应力增加,同时后热效应使得热应力降低,最终呈现出残余压应力状态。