Bridging the research traditions of task/ego involvement and intrinsic/extrinsic motivation: Comment on Butler (1987).

In an experiment on the effects of different feedback conditions on motivationally relevant variables, R. Butler (see record 1988-21628-001) tested the hypothesis that the effects of feedback on intrinsic motivation would depend on whether that feedback promotes a task-involving or ego-involving orientation. She interpreted the findings as they relate to J. G. Nicholls's (see record 1984-28719-001) theory of task/ego involvement and our cognitive evaluation theory (E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan, 1985). Although the data were very interesting, Butler failed to review a series of highly relevant studies, she misportrayed cognitive evaluation theory, and she drew conclusions that were not necessarily warranted given her experimental manipulations and data. This article provides a commentary on that research and presents a discussion of the relation between the two theories that Butler claimed to have tested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Formulations théoriques contemporaines en motivation intrinsèque: Revue et critique.

Reviews recent theoretical formulations on explaining and predicting the effects of reinforcement on intrinsic motivation. Included are the overjustification hypothesis of M. R. Lepper et al (see record 1974-10498-001), cognitive evaluation theory of E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan (1975, 1980), the competing response hypothesis of S. Reiss and L. W. Sushinsky (see record 1975-28914-001), and the delay of gratification hypothesis of W. Mischel et al (see record 1972-20631-001). Cognitive evaluation theory was found to provide the most complete theory in that it generates predictions of both decreases and increases in intrinsic motivation. Little conceptual evidence was found for the major theoretical formulations, and the use of an interactional paradigm in future research is stressed. (73 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The undermining effect is a reality after all—Extrinsic rewards, task interest, and self-determination: Reply to Eisenberger, Pierce, and Cameron (1999) and Lepper, Henderlong, and Gingras (1999).

In their commentaries, M. R. Lepper, J. Henderlong, and I. Gingras (see record 1999-01567-002) rightly stressed various pitfalls in using meta-analysis and R. Eisenberger, W. D. Pierce, and J. Cameron (see record 1999-01567-003) rescinded or failed to defend many of their earlier claims, instead presenting 2 new meta-analyses said to discredit cognitive evaluation theory (CET). The 1st, concerning reward effects on self-determination, is invalid because they confused locus of control with locus of causality, and the 2nd, concerning performance-contingent rewards, is flawed in ways similar to their 3 previous meta-analyses. Their only new reliable finding, based on 6 studies, is that if people are told their performance will be evaluated by high standards, they are less intrinsically motivated when they do not get rewards than when they do. This article discusses conceptual and methodological issues, concluding that CET remains the best supported and most comprehensive theory of reward effects on intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some comments about cognitions as causal variables.

Notes problems with the position forwarded by I. S. Schonfeld (see record 1990-31203-001) that cognitive behaviors may play a role in antisocial behaviors. A longitudinal study by L. R. Huesmann et al (see record 1987-15097-001) is cited that is not consistent with Schonfeld's hypothesis but is consistent with the hypothesis presented by G. R. Patterson et al (see record 1989-26278-001) that achievement failures are the result of antisocial behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation—Uses and abuses of meta-anlysis: Comment on Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (1999).

Recently, 3 different meta-analytic reviews of the literature concerning the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation have appeared, including that by Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (see record 1999-01567-001) in this issue. Interestingly, despite their common focus, these reviews have offered dramatically opposed bottom-line conclusions about the meaning and implications of this literature. In this comment, the authors examine differences among these 3 reviews and conclude that the findings of this literature have been more accurately captured by the reviews of Deci et al. and Tang and Hall (see record 1996-19065-001) than by that of Cameron and Pierce (see record 1995-15243-001). More broadly, the authors also suggest that there may be significant short- and long-term costs to the unthinking or automatic use of meta-analysis with theoretically derived, procedurally diverse, and empirically complex literatures like that concerning extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognition and affect: A reply to Lazarus and Zajonc.

The present authors comment on articles by R. S. Lazarus (see record 1984-30606-001) and R. B. Zajonc (see record 1984-30610-001) on the relationship between cognition and affect and note that the 2 authors arrived at fundamentally different conclusions. It is suggested that the disagreement between the conclusions of Lazarus and Zajonc is in large part due to the difference in the scope of their definitions of affect and cognition. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Women's role in psychotherapy": Reply to Solomon, Penzer, and Barber.

Suggests that I. Solomon et al (see record 1984-29323-001) were unaware, in their comment on the work of R. T. Hare-Mustin (see record 1984-07313-001), that others also consider Freud's treatment of Dora as lacking in trust and respect. It is suggested that Hare-Mustin was not confusing family treatment with psychoanalysis but was pointing out Freud's bias in the case. It is concluded that if Solomon and colleagues felt that they had to defend Freud against all criticism, they undervalued Freud's genius. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of age-extended norms for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised in patients with Alzheimer's disease.

Recent studies by R. J. Ivnik et al (see record 1993-04116-001), J. F. Malec et al (see record 1993-04120-001), and J. J. Ryan et al (see record 1991-08835-001) have provided age-extended norms for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R). The current study compared IQ scores based on these newer age-extended norms in 216 elderly Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Results showed that when the norms from Ryan et al were used, IQ scores were consistently the same as or higher than when WAIS—R manual norms were used. When the norms provided by Ivnik et al and Malec et al were used, IQ scores tended to be lower than WAIS—R manual norms for younger patients with more intellectual impairment. Results illustrate the importance of reporting the normative sample upon which IQ test scores for older adults are based and provide guidelines for selecting which set of age-extended WAIS—R norms to use with cognitively impaired elderly Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Separate features versus one principle: Comment on Shimaya (1997).

In his article "Perception of Complex Line Drawings," A. Shimaya (see record 1997-02284-003) proposed a quantitative theory that was designed to predict perceived segmentations and amodal completions of line drawings. Shimaya further evaluated the integrative approach of structural information theory (SIT; R. Van Lier, P. Van der Helm, & E. Leeuwenberg, [see record 1995-23971-001]) to pattern interpretation. It is argued in this comment that Shimaya's evaluation of the SIT approach is based on a misconception of SITs basic assumptions and an inappropriate data analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive resource theory: Issues for specifying a test of the theory.

F. E. Fiedler et al (see record 1992-34884-001) raise a variety of objections to a study by R. P. Vecchio (see record 1990-17057-001), which addressed the 7 propositions of cognitive resource theory. Their objections, which are essentially based on reservations offered in the article itself, reflect overstatement and are largely unfounded. This article examines each of their objections and reiterates areas that deserve further refinement. Future research related to cognitive resource theory will benefit from a consideration of the original points raised in the author's earlier article. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

E pluribus unum.

Replies to comments on the original article by R. J. Sternberg and E. L. Grigorenko (see record 2001-10045-001), which described an approach to psychology ("unified psychology") which is a multiparadigmatic, multidisciplinary, and integrated study of psychological phenomena through converging operations. Sternberg and Grigorenko reply to comments by H. H. Kendler (see record 2003-03406-005), M. Y. Lau (see record 2003-03406-006), J. I. Kassinove (see record 2003-03406-007), W. Chovan (see record 2003-03406-008) and R. Chao (see record 2003-03406-009). Sternberg and Grigorenko note that the aforementioned authors disagree at least as much among themselves as they do with Sternberg and Grigorenko's proposals. Sternberg and Grigorenko provide brief replies to each published comment here. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Plasticity, person-context relations, and cognitive training in the aged years: A developmental contextual perspective.

Developmental contextualism focuses on changes in fused relations between developing people and their changing contexts. The presence of these relations means that human development is characterized by the potential for systematic change—for plasticity—across life. Research on training cognitive functioning in the aged years provides evidence about plasticity because such investigations attempt to alter developmental trajectories by introducing a revised regimen of person–context relations into people's lives. Moreover, when research is conducted with people in their advanced adult years, it is often interpreted as constituting a conservative test of plasticity. J. I. Campbell and N. Charness (see record 1991-06940-001), P. Gratzinger et al (see record 1991-07064-001), R. Kliegl et al (see record 1991-06962-001), and S. L. Willis and C. S. Nesselroade (see record 1991-07074-001), in the 4 studies reported in this special section, provide evidence that supports developmental contextual ideas about plasticity and about procedures and policies that might create conditions promoting enhancement of cognitive functioning among the aged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neural nets for generalization and classification: Comment on Staddon and Reid (1990).

The neural net model of J. E. R. Staddon and A. K. Reid (see record 1991-03032-001) explains exponential and Gaussian generalization gradients in the same way as the diffusion model of R. N. Shepard (1958). The "cognitive" generalization theory of Shepard (see record 1988-28272-001), which also has been implemented as a connectionist network, goes beyond both of these models in accounting for classification learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An empirical psychophysical model of pain.

Presents an empirical model of pain motivated by the remarks of J. W. Tukey (see record 1969-08913-001) on exploratory data analysis and the data of E. R. Hilgard (see record 1969-09295-001) on cold pressor pain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological adjustment and cancer outcome: Levy versus Taylor.

In response to S. Levy's (see record 1985-25856-001) criticism of R. Taylor's (see record 1984-17824-001) proposed cognitive theory of adaptation to cancer, the present author argues that Levy's contention that psychological maladjustment is associated with positive biological outcome is unjustified and bears little relevance to Taylor's model and its testability. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Theoretical psychology, artificial intelligence, and empirical research.

Replies to M. R. Dawson's (see record 1990-24151-001) argument that A. Kukla (see record 1989-24526-001) misrepresents the empirical element in discussing artificial intelligence. The main objection to Dawson's comment is that it perpetuates the idea that theoretical work is coextensive with the task of constructing new theories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selected views of family assessment: A commentary.

Comments on articles concerning family assessment by H. D. Grotevant (see record 1990-12120-001); R. B. Hampson et al (see record 1990-12122-001); D. C. Bell and L. G. Bell (see record 1990-12106-001); C. I. Carlson (see record 1990-12110-001); and T. L. Huston and J. K. Rempel (see record 1990-12126-001). It is suggested that theory needs to be related to research and practice more consistently. It would be useful to identify the principle theories in family science and critically examine the unique assessment issues raised by each perspective. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Big Brother's ecological psychology.

An Orwellian chill ran down my spine as I read the May 2000 quintet of articles on psychology's role in ecological activism (Howard, see record 2000-15413-009; McKenzie-Mohr, see record 2000-15413-012; Oskamp, see record 2000-15413-008; Stern, see record 2000-15413-011; Winter, see record 2000-15413-010). My dread arose not from the authors' admirable concern for the environment but from their insufficiently self-critical arguments for psychological intervention. The dread of Orwellian Big Brotherism has three dimensions: valuation, competence, and autonomy. Psychologists must be cautious in moving from professional interventions for knowledgeably willing clients (autonomy) to essentially political interventions that attempt to influence others in the direction of psychologists' rather than clients' values (valuation), while appealing to claims that are beyond psychological expertise (competence). The ecological quintet of authors failed to address those three dimensions adequately, raising the specter of psychologists playing an Orwellian role toward society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"International Psychology": Answer to Robert J. Smith.

Replies to a comment by R. J. Smith (see record 1983-29210-001) on the author's article on international psychology (see record 1982-29234-001). The author clarifies points surrounding Marxist psychology, Kritische Psychologie, radical psychology, and similar approaches. He reminds Dr. Smith that these approaches are very popular in Latin America. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The importance of Popper's theories to psychology.

In a comment on G. A. Kimble's (see record 1986-07921-001) and L. Krasner and A. C. Houts's (see record 1986-10225-001) articles on the place of values in psychological research, the present author argues that the theory of induction and the entire program of the Vienna Circle of logical positivists were destroyed by the theory of objective knowledge of K. R. Popper (published between 1934 and 1982). It is suggested that when Popper's ideas are understood, there can be an epistemic armistice between the scientific and humanistic cultures, although both sides will need to modify some assumptions that they currently share. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)