Mnemonic versus nonmnemonic vocabulary-learning strategies: Additional comparisons.

The keyword method of vocabulary learning was compared with 5 methods designed to increase semantic processing of the definitions of the vocabulary words. In Exps I–III with 254 undergraduates, recall of the definitions from the vocabulary words was the critical dependent measure, with the keyword method producing greater learning than in any of the semantic-based or control conditions. None of the semantic-based conditions facilitated definition recall relative to a no-strategy control condition. In Exps IV and V with 144 Ss, the keyword method, 2 semantic strategies, and the no-strategy control procedure were compared with respect to associative and response-learning components of vocabulary learning. The keyword method enhanced vocabulary/definition (associative) learning but not definition (response) learning per se. In contrast, the semantic conditions tended to increase nonassociative learning of the definitions. Results bolster the case that the keyword method is a vocabulary-learning procedure superior to semantic-based strategies advocated by reading theorists. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Putting the keyword method in context.

Compared the keyword method of learning new vocabulary with a context method in which the meaning of the new vocabulary items had to be inferred from a meaningful context. In Exp I, with 69 undergraduates, the keyword method produced greater definition recall than the context method, even when such recall was conditionalized on context Ss' correct discovery of the word's meaning. Combining the keyword method with the context method significantly improved recall over that of context alone but produced recall below that displayed by the keyword method alone. For Ss high in verbal ability, as assessed by the Scholastic Aptitude Test, the keyword method did not promote significantly better recall than a no-strategy control condition. In Exp II, with 42 Ss, the keyword and context methods were evaluated in terms of how adequately the vocabulary could be used in sentences. Both methods led to highly adequate use of vocabulary in sentences, given that the word's meaning could be recalled. As in Exp I, the keyword method produced significantly greater definition recall than the context method. Implications for vocabulary learning theories and discovery learning approaches are discussed. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive monitoring and strategy choice in younger and older adults.

Younger (24- to 39-year-old) and older (60- to 88-year-old) adults learned a list of vocabulary words; one half of the words were studied using a generally more powerful strategy (mnemonic keyword method), and one half mediated with a less powerful approach (generating semantic contexts). Before using these strategies as part of the experiment, neither younger nor older adults judged that the keyword method was more effective and neither group preferred one strategy over the other. After using the strategies and taking a test of strategically studied unfamiliar vocabulary words, the younger subjects reported accurately the relative effectiveness of the two strategies and selected the one that had worked better for them to apply to a subsequent list of vocabulary items. The older participants were not as aware of the differential potency of the strategies and did not rely as much as did the younger subjects on knowledge of strategy utility in making strategy choices. In short, metacognitive awareness of strategy effects produced by monitoring and use of metacognitive awareness in regulating strategy choice were more pronounced in the younger compared with the older sample in this study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual Differences in the Inference of Word Meanings From Context: The Influence of Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary Knowledge, and Memory Capacity.

Two studies investigated the ability to use contextual information in stories to infer the meanings of novel vocabulary by 9-10-year-olds with good and poor reading comprehension. Across studies, children with poor reading comprehension were impaired when the processing demands of the task were greatest. In Study 2, working memory capacity was related to performance, but short-term memory span and memory for the literal content of the text were not. Children with poor reading comprehension were not impaired in learning novel vocabulary taught through direct instruction, but children with both weak reading comprehension and vocabulary were. Implications for the relation between vocabulary development and text comprehension are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of integration in recognition failure and action memory

In three experiments, we studied memory for action events with respect to exceptions from the Tulving-Wiseman function demonstrated in experiments on recognition failure of recallable words. In Experiment 1, we examined exceptions of poor integration in a regular recognition failure condition (i.e., recognition of targets without contextual cues, followed by recall of targets in the presence of contextual cues). In Experiment 2, we examined exceptions of cue overlap in which subjects also had access to the information of contextual cues at recognition test. In Experiment 3, we attempted to equate the levels of recognition across the action and verbal encoding. In addition, the cue overlap and no-cue overlap conditions were studied in a within-subjects design. Results from the three experiments indicated that encoding enactment (episodic integration) and conceptual integration (semantic integration) are related to each other. As a consequence of this relationship, there is a larger independence between recognition and recall of well-integrated items with encoding enactment. On the other hand, for the poorly integrated items without encoding enactment, there is a larger dependence between recognition and recall. Even in the cue overlap condition, where there is a case of large dependence between recognition and recall, the same pattern of data was observed. The results are discussed in terms of an episodic integration view of encoding enactment.     

Temporal associations and prior-list intrusions in free recall.

When asked to recall the words from a just-presented target list, subjects occasionally recall words that were not on the list. These intrusions either appeared on earlier lists (prior-list intrusions, or PLIs) or had not appeared over the course of the experiment (extra-list intrusions). The authors examined the factors that elicit PLIs in free recall. A reanalysis of earlier studies revealed that PLIs tend to come from semantic associates as well as from recently studied lists, with the rate of PLIs decreasing sharply with list recency. The authors report 3 new experiments in which some items in a given list also appeared on earlier lists. Although repetition enhanced recall of list items, subjects were significantly more likely to make PLIs following the recall of repeated items, suggesting that temporal associations formed in earlier lists can induce recall errors. The authors interpret this finding as evidence for the interacting roles of associative and contextual retrieval processes in recall. Although contextual information helps to focus recall on words in the target list, it does not form an impermeable boundary between current- and prior-list experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for Narrative and Expository Text: Independent Influences of Semantic Associations and Text Organization.

The author examined memory for text in terms of the independent influences of semantic knowledge associations and text organization. Semantic associations were operationalized as the semantic relatedness between individual text concepts and the text as a whole and assessed with latent semantic analysis. The author assessed text organization by simulating comprehension with the construction integration model. Text organization consistently accounted for unique variance in recall. Semantic associations strongly predicted expository recall and predicted narrative recall significantly but to a lesser extent, even when the familiarity of the narrative content was manipulated. Results suggest that prior semantic associations and novel associations in the text structure influence memory independently, and that these influences can be affected by text genre. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the utility of the keyword mnemonic for vocabulary learning.

Examined the use of the keyword mnemonic for vocabulary learning by university students given extensive keyword training. Keywords were identified by the learners rather than supplied by the experimenter. In Exp 1, Ss studied and recalled English equivalents of German nouns before and after mnemonic training under different presentation conditions. Before training, learning was 60% better with 4 list presentations at a 2.5-s rate (4?×?2.5) than with 1 presentation at a 10-s rate (1?×?10). Learning was better after training, especially in the 1?×?10 condition; Ss reported difficulty using the keyword mnemonic in the 4?×?2.5 condition despite higher learning scores in that condition after training. In Exp 2, Ss learned brief definitions of unusual words with self-paced presentation. The keyword Ss scored significantly more poorly than controls on items not selected for keyword suitability, and additional data indicated that it was difficult to generate keywords for many of those items and that an alternative mediational strategy was preferred. A 3rd experiment showed no learning difference between the keyword-generated version of the keyword method used in Exps 1 and 2 and a keyword-supplied condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sources of child vocabulary competence: a multivariate model

This study examines sources of individual variation in child vocabulary competence in the context of a multivariate developmental ecological model. Maternal sociodemographic characteristics, personological characteristics, and vocabulary, as well as child gender, social competence, and vocabulary competence were evaluated simultaneously in 126 children aged 1;8 and their mothers. Measures of child vocabulary competence included two measures each of spontaneous speech, experimenter assessments, and maternal reports. Maternal measures, from proximal to distal, included vocabulary, verbal intelligence, personality, attitudes toward parenting, knowledge of parenting, and SES. Structural equation modelling supported several direct unique predictive relations: child gender (girls higher) and social competence as well as maternal attitudes toward parenting predicted child vocabulary competence, and mothers' vocabulary predicted child vocabulary comprehension and two measures of mother-reported child vocabulary expression. In addition, children's vocabulary competence was influenced indirectly by mothers' vocabulary, social personality, and knowledge of child development. Maternal vocabulary itself was positively influenced by SES, maternal verbal intelligence, and mothers' knowledge about parenting. Individual variation in child vocabulary competence might best be understood as arising within a nexus of contextual factors both proximal and distal to the child.     

Recall of Descriptive Information: The Roles of Presentation Format, Annotation Strategy, and Individual Differences

The benefits of using a comprehensive annotation strategy (employing underlining/circling, making connections, asking questions, and making comments) with knowledge maps (spatial/verbal arrays) and traditional, linear text to improve free recall scores for learners with individual differences in vocabulary and comprehension ability were examined. Types and frequencies of annotations generated were also examined for each stimulus format condition. Multiple regression analyses indicate that the frequency of use of two component annotation strategies, asking questions and making connections, were significant predictors of recall scores, while frequency of underlining/circling and generating elaborations failed to predict recall scores. Text users generated more underlining/circling, while knowledge map users generated more connections between ideas, suggesting that knowledge maps may facilitate the application of more productive annotation strategies. Also examined were the interrelationships between vocabulary ability, comprehension ability, and free recall scores. Copyright 1997Academic Press     

Learning by the keyword mnemonic: Looking for long-term benefits.

Although using the keyword mnemonic to learn new vocabulary items enhances performance on the tests of immediate cued recall when compared with control strategies, the reverse is true after a delay. The authors examined long-term retention of second language vocabulary with 2 variants of the keyword method: self-generated keywords (Experiment 1) and mnemonic pictures (Experiment 2). Results showed that keyword generation did not attenuate forgetting, but provision of pictures of the keyword and translation referent during study improved long-term retention. Pictures may increase the visual detail of interactive images and hence the stability of the memory trace (Experiment 3). However, designers of instructional modules should be aware that immediate gains evidenced by learners who use the standard keyword technique may dissipate rapidly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension.

To examine the relationship between knowledge of word meanings and semantic processes, 27 4th-grade children were taught 104 words over a 5-mo period. Following instruction, Ss performed tasks designed to require semantic processes ranging from single word semantic decisions to simple sentence verification and memory for connected text. On all these tasks, instructed Ss performed at a significantly higher level than controls matched on pre-instruction vocabulary knowledge and comprehension. Thus, instructed Ss gave evidence both of learning word meanings taught by the program and of being able to process instructed words more efficiently in tasks more reflective of comprehension. Implications for vocabulary instruction and the role of individual word meanings in comprehension are discussed. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adding a vocabulary component to incremental rehearsal to enhance retention and generalization.

The current study investigates the effect of adding a semantic component, in the form of vocabulary, to the incremental rehearsal (IR) procedure. Sixty-one second- and third-grade students in a suburban elementary school were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: IR or IR with vocabulary. Each participant was taught seven previously unknown words; participants were also taught the word's definition within the vocabulary condition. Retention and generalization were assessed one week later. Participants in the vocabulary condition retained and generalized significantly more words than participants in the IR only condition. Future studies should investigate effect of vocabulary integration in other reading interventions as well as the effect of vocabulary integration on reading fluency and passage comprehension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Remote semantic memory in patients with Korsakoff's syndrome and herpes encephalitis.

Performance of patients with Korsakoff's syndrome and herpes encephalitis was compared on a retrograde amnesia (RA) test, asking subjects to recall and recognize the definitions of words that had come into the language at different time periods. Performance was also compared on a related test in which participants were asked to produce the words to definitions they were given in free recall and cued recall versions. It was hypothesized that, if the temporal gradient in remote memory results from a shift of information from episodic to semantic memory, then there should be a temporal gradient on these tasks, possibly steeper (i.e., greater relative sparing of early memories) in the patients in the Korsakoff group than in the herpes encephalitis group, who have widespread temporal lobe damage. Furthermore, in comparing semantic and episodic remote memory tests, consolidation theory would predict uniform temporal gradients across such tasks, whereas multiple trace theory would predict a differential pattern. The results showed that patients with Korsakoff's syndrome and patients with herpes encephalitis were significantly impaired across all time periods on the vocabulary tests, with only minimal evidence of temporal gradients, relative to healthy participants, and there was no evidence of a differential pattern of impairment between the two patient groups. Comparison with performance on measures of episodic retrograde amnesia, in which there was a differential pattern of temporal gradient, suggests that the relative preservation of early episodic remote memories in patients with Korsakoff's syndrome does not result from an episodic-to-semantic shift in the quality with which memories are stored. These findings are discussed in relation to existing theories of RA and to the patients' underlying patterns of neuropathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Engaging texts: Effects of concreteness on comprehensibility, interest, and recall in four text types.

Concreteness was investigated as a text feature that engaged readers' comprehension, interest, and learning in 4 text types: persuasion, exposition, literary stories, and narratives. Three concrete and 3 abstract texts were selected in each text type. Concrete and abstract titles served as recall cues and to investigate title concreteness effects. In 2 experiments, undergraduates read the texts and either provided written recalls or rated them for familiarity, concreteness, interestingness, and comprehensibility. Concrete texts were recalled better than abstract texts, although the magnitude of the advantage varied across text types. Concreteness was overwhelmingly the best predictor of overall comprehensibility, interest, and recall. Effects of title concreteness varied across text types. Results extend the findings of M. Sadoski, E. T. Goetz, and J. B. Fritz (see records 1993-36182-001 and 1993-32227-001) and are consistent with dual coding theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Keyword mnemonic and retention of second-language vocabulary words.

Use of the keyword mnemonic has been shown to substantially increase learning speed and immediate recall of 2nd-language vocabulary words in comparison with other learning strategies. Although the majority of researchers examining long-term retention of material acquired through the keyword method have concluded that these gains are maintained over time, most have relied on experimental designs based on within-S comparisons. However, within-S comparisons of retention over time are confounded by both rates of initial acquisition and level of immediate recall. In this article, data are presented from 4 experiments in which the retention interval (immediate vs delay) was treated as a between-Ss factor. The findings consistently indicated that long-term forgetting was greater for learners instructed to use the keyword mnemonic than for learners engaged in rote rehearsal. It is suggested that preexperimental associations to keywords interfere with retrieval of the interactive images established in the laboratory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Organization and comprehensibility in scientific proofs: or, "Consider a particle p…"

Scientific texts commonly present principles by first giving a proof and only afterward stating the principle—a "proof-first" organization. This specialized text structure differs from conventional structures in that it lacks thematic information to guide text processing. The current research examined the effects on comprehension of this proof-first organization. This was done by comparing the processing of proof-first texts to that of "principle-first" texts, in which the theme (i.e., the principle) is stated at the beginning. Readers had more difficulty determining what was important when reading proof-first texts and reorganized proof-first texts into a principle-first structure when summarizing. The proof-first organization also decreased recall of the principle. These results suggest that, compared with a principle-first structure, the proof-first structure increases processing difficulty and results in a less complete text representation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An application of the mnemonic keyword method to the acquisition of German nouns and their grammatical gender.

The mnemonic keyword method was modified to help students learn the meaning and the grammatical gender of German nouns. The modification consisted of recoding the gender tags to make them more concrete and thereby enable students to form a semantic link between the referent of the German noun and the recoded gender tag. The effectiveness of this variation of the keyword method was tested with French-speaking students. Two experiments yielded 5 main results: (a) Relative to free-strategy instructions, the modified keyword method did facilitate the acquisition of both the meaning and the grammatical gender of German nouns. (b) Learning the gender in addition to the translation appeared to slow down the acquisition of native translations. (c) Interactive imagery facilitated the recall of genders only if learners were explicitly asked to recode the gender and to include the recoded gender tag in the image. (d) Learners were more likely to report the correct German gender if it was identical to that of the native translation. (e) The keyword advantage and the effect of gender congruence on the recall of gender were detected only if the native translation was recalled. The discussion bears on the encoding and retrieval of complex associations between a German noun and its grammatical gender. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributes of theories of meaning.

This article reviews and evaluates empirical evidence on psychological theories of semantic representation. Four theories are identified. These theories can be distinguished on the basis of (a) whether comprehension of a word requires decomposition into semantic components and (b) whether the units of representation used in comprehension (semantic components) are conceptual primitives. The review covers research on semantic complexity, semantic structure, speech and comprehension errors, effects of context on semantic interpretation, and semantic acquisition. A theoretical framework for understanding semantic acquisition is proposed and defended. The authors conclude that a decompositional theory of psychological semantics is needed to explain language acquisition, production, and comprehension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Encoding and retrieval differences between young and old: The impact of attentional capacity usage.

An experiment was conducted to investigate (a) whether the semantic processing deficit in the aged can be attributed to age differences in capacity usage during encoding and (b) age differences in terms of the interaction between encoding and retrieval operations. Young and older adults engaged in both a primary (semantic, rhyme, and arithmetic questions) and secondary task (probe monitoring) at encoding and retrieval. The study provided no evidence for the hypothesis that the age-related semantic processing deficit is the result of age differences in capacity usage during semantic and nonsemantic encoding. However, there was evidence that reinstating the encoded semantic context with the same semantic cue at retrieval did not help older subjects as much as younger subjects at recall. These results were interpreted as suggesting that there may be an age deficit in the effective use of semantic contextual information at encoding and retrieval rather than a simple age deficit in semantic processing at encoding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)