Microscopic and macroscopic atomization characteristics of a pressure-swirl atomizer,injecting a viscous fuel oil

Combustion of heavy fuels is one of the main sources of greenhouse gases, particulate emissions, ashes, NOxand SOx. Gasification is an advanced and environmentally friendly process that generates combustible and clean gas products such as hydrogen. Some entrained flow gasifiers operate with Heavy Fuel Oil(HFO) feedstock. In this application, HFO atomization is very important in determining the performance and efficiency of the gasifiers.The atomization characteristics of HFO(Mazut) discharging from a pressure-swirl atomizer(PSA) are studied for different pressures difference(Δp) and temperatures in the atmospheric ambient. The investigated parameters include atomizer mass flow rate( _m), discharge coefficient(CD), spray cone angle(θ), breakup length(Lb), the unstable wavelength of undulations on the liquid sheet(λs), global and local SMD(sauter mean diameter) and size distribution of droplets. The characteristics of Mazut sheet breakup are deduced from the shadowgraph technique. The experiments on Mazut film breakup were compared with the predictions obtained from the liquid film breakup model. Validity of the theory for predicting maximum unstable wavelength was investigated for HFO(as a highly viscous liquid). A modification on the formulation of maximum unstable wavelength was presented for HFO. SMD decreases by getting far from the atomizer. The measurement for SMD and θ were compared with the available correlations. The comparisons of the available correlations with the measurements of SMD andθ show a good agreement for Ballester and Varde correlations, respectively. The results show that the experimental sizing data could be presented by Rosin-Rammler distributions very well at different pressure difference and temperatures.     

Asymmetric breakup of a droplet in an axisymmetric extensional flow

The asymmetric breakups of a droplet in an axisymmetric cross-like microfluidic device are investigated by using a three-dimensional volume of fluid(VOF) multiphase numerical model. Two kinds of asymmetries(droplet location deviation from the symmetric geometry center and different flow rates at two symmetric outlets) generate asymmetric flow fields near the droplet, which results in the asymmetric breakup of the latter. Four typical breakup regimes(no breakup, one-side breakup, retraction breakup and direct breakup) have been observed.Two regime maps are plotted to describe the transition from one regime to another for the two types of different asymmetries, respectively. A power law model, which is based on the three critical factors(the capillary number,the asymmetry of flow fields and the initial volume ratio), is employed to predict the volume ratio of the two unequal daughter droplets generated in the direct breakup. The influences of capillary numbers and the asymmetries have been studied systematically in this paper. The larger the asymmetry is, the bigger the oneside breakup zone is. The larger the capillary number is, the more possible the breakup is in the direct breakup zone. When the radius of the initial droplet is 20 μm, the critical capillary numbers are 0.122, 0.128, 0.145,0.165, 0.192 and 0.226 for flow asymmetry factor AS= 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5, respectively, in the flow system whose asymmetry is generated by location deviations. In the flow system whose asymmetry is generated by two different flow rates at two outlets, the critical capillary numbers are 0.121, 0.133, 0.145, 0.156 and 0.167 for AS= 1/21, 3/23, 1/5, 7/27 and 9/29, respectively.     

硬木中流体移动的双尺度多孔机理的依据（I）用多色X光束测定榉木浸润中湿含量的演变

An experimental device able to determine the moisture content of wood using X-ray attenuation is used to study the imbibition of beech samples (Fagus silvatica). The apparatus includes an X-ray generator, a protective tube, coUimating plates and a 50 mm detector. Detected particles can be categorised by energy (accuracy of the order of 20%) or by position (accuracy 100μm). The independent choice of both the energy spectrum (through the voltage) and the counting rate (through the current intensity) makes the installation very flexible. However,a rigorous treatment is necessary to deal with the attenuation of a polychromatic spectrum. The appropriate calculations are presented and validated with homogeneous samples made of wood and water. In addition, some results are presented with samples heterogeneous in density and moisture content. Finally, the experimental device is used to study the evolution of moisture content during saturation experiments, for which the moisture migration is mainly due to capillary forces. The geometrical configuration was so arranged that the transfer can be studied in two directions simultaneously.     

Spray and mixing characteristics of liquid jet in a tubular gas–liquid atomization mixer

For the design and optimization of a tubular gas–liquid atomization mixer,the atomization and mixing characteristics of liquid jet breakup in the limited tube space is a key problem.In this study,the primary breakup process of liquid jet column was analyzed by high-speed camera,then the droplet size and velocity distribution of atomized droplets were measured by Phase-Doppler anemometry (PDA).The hydrodynamic characteristics of gas flow in tubular gas–liquid atomization mixer were analyzed by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) numerical simulation.The results indicate that the liquid flow rate has little effect on the atomization droplet size and atomization pressure drop,and the gas flow rate is the main influence parameter.Under all experimental gas flow conditions,the liquid jet column undergoes a primary breakup process,forming larger liquid blocks and droplets.When the gas flow rate (Q_g) is less than 127 m~3·h~(-1),the secondary breakup of large liquid blocks and droplets does not occur in venturi throat region.The Sauter mean diameter (SMD) of droplets measured at the outlet is more than 140μm,and the distribution is uneven.When Q_g127 m~3·h~(-1),the large liquid blocks and droplets have secondary breakup process at the throat region.The SMD of droplets measured at the outlet is less than 140μm,and the distribution is uniform.When 127Q_g162 m~3·h~(-1),the secondary breakup mode of droplets is bag breakup or pouch breakup.When 181Q_g216 m~3·h~(-1),the secondary breakup mode of droplets is shear breakup or catastrophic breakup.In order to ensure efficient atomization and mixing,the throat gas velocity of the tubular atomization mixer should be designed to be about 51 m·s~(-1)under the lowest operating flow rate.The pressure drop of the tubular atomization mixer increases linearly with the square of gas velocity,and the resistance coefficient is about 2.55 in single-phase flow condition and 2.73 in gas–liquid atomization condition.     

用局部组成理论关联纳米流体的剪切黏度

In this study, a new method is presented to correlate the shear viscosity of nanofluids by local composition theory. The Eyring theory and nonrandom two-liquid (NRTL) equation are used for this purpose. The effects of temperature and particle volume concentration on the viscosity are investigated. The adjustable parameters of NRTL equation are obtained by fitting with experimental data. The calculated shear viscosities for nanofluids of CuO/water with 29 nm particle size, Al2O3/water with two different particle diameters, 36 nm and 47 nm, and CuO/(ethylene glycol, water) are compared with experimental data and the average absolute deviation (AAD) is 1.2%, while the results from some conventional models yield an AAD of 190%. The results of this study are in excellent agreement with experimental data.     

Kinetics of Forward Extraction of Boric Acid from Salt Lake Brine by 2-Ethyl-1,3-hexanediol in Toluene Using Single Drop Technique

The kinetics of forward extraction of boric acid from salt lake brine by 2-ethyl-1,3-hexanediol in tolu-ene was investigated using the single drop technique. The factors affecting the extraction rate include interfacial area between aqueous phase and organic phase, initial concentration of boric acid in aqueous phase, initial concen-tration of 2-ethyl-1,3-hexanediol in organic phase, and extraction temperature. The experimental results show that the extraction rate increases with the increase of the initial concentration of boric acid and 2-ethyl-1,3-hexanediol, interfacial area of two phases, and temperature. With the temperature-dependence study, it is showed that the ex-traction is a diffusion-controlled process. The kinetic equation is presented for pH 1.0 in the aqueous phase and temperature of 318 K.     

Droplets diameter distribution using maximum entropy formulation combined with a new energy-based sub-model

The maximum entropy principle (MEP) is one of the first methods which have been used to predict droplet size and velocity distributions of liquid sprays. This method needs a mean droplets diameter as an input to predict the droplet size distribution. This paper presents a new sub-model based on the deterministic aspects of liquid atom-ization process independent of the experimental data to provide the mean droplets diameter for using in the maximum entropy formulation (MEF). For this purpose, a theoretical model based on the approach of energy conservation law entitled energy-based model (EBM) is presented. Based on this approach, atomization occurs due to the kinetic energy loss. Prediction of the combined model (MEF/EBM) is in good agreement with the avail-able experimental data. The energy-based model can be used as a fast and reliable enough model to obtain a good estimation of the mean droplets diameter of a spray and the combined model (MEF/EBM) can be used to wel predict the droplet size distribution at the primary breakup.     

机械力强化作用下轻烧氧化镁碳化过程的传质与反应动力学研究

The carbonization of magnesium oxide particles by CO2 was investigated using a stirring mill reactor. The effects of the system temperature, stirring rotation speed, influx rate of CO2 and initial diameter of the magnesium oxide particles on the carbonization process were determined, The results show that the system temperature and the stirring rotation speed are the most significant influencing factors on the carbonization rate. The determi-nation of critical decomposition temperature (CDT) gives the maximum carbonization rate with other conditions fixed. A theoretical model involving mass transfer and reaction kinetics was presented for the carbonization process. The apparent activation energy was calculated to be 32.8kJ·mol-1. The carbonization process is co-controlled by diffusive mass transfer and chemical reaction. The model fits well with the experimental results.     

Evidence of Dual Scale Porous Mechanisms During Fluid Migration in Hardwood Species (Ⅰ) Using the Attenuation of a Aolychromatic X-ray Beam to Determine the Evolution of Moisture Content During Imbibition of Beech

An experimental device able to determine the moisture content of wood using X-ray attenuation is used to study the imbibition of beech samples (Fagus silvatica). The apparatus includes an X-ray generator, a protective tube, collimating plates and a 50 mm detector. Detected particles can be categorised by energy (accuracy of the order of 20%) or by position (accuracy 100 μm). The independent choice of both the energy spectrum (through the voltage) and the counting rate (through the current intensity) makes the installation very flexible. However, a rigorous treatment is necessary to deal with the attenuation of a polychromatic spectrum. The appropriate calculations are presented and validated with homogeneous samples made of wood and water. In addition, some results are presented with samples heterogeneous in density and moisture content. Finally, the experimental device is used to study the evolution of moisture content during saturation experiments, for which the moisture migration is mainly due to cap     

多管气升式环流反应器的液体循环

A multi-tube air-lift loop reactor (MT-ALR) is presented in this paper. Based on the energy conservation, a mathematical model describing the liquid circulation flow rate was developed, which was determined by gas velocity, the cross areas of riser and downcomer, gas hold-up and the local frictional loss coefficient. The experimental data indicate that either increase of gas flow rate or reduction of the downcomer diameter contributes to higher liquid circulation rate. The correlation between total and the local frictional loss coefficients was also established.Effects of gas flowrate in two risers and diameter of downcomer on the liquid circulation rate were examined. The value of total frictional loss coefficient was measured as a function of the cross area of downcomer and independent of the gas flow rate. The calculated results of liquid circulation rates agreed well with the experimental data with an average relative error of 9.6%.     

Design of a Cone‐Cone Shear Cell to Study Emulsification Characteristics

In order to study emulsification phenomena, devices generating well‐defined flow conditions are essential. Thus, emulsification of drop collectives under laminar shear flow is commonly performed in cylindrical Couette or Searle devices. In these devices, the flow conditions in the shear gap and in the volume underneath the rotor are often different, which can lead to inhomogeneous product properties and may complicate sample taking. Here, a novel cone‐cone shear cell is presented to study emulsification processes. The flow inside the device is examined using numerical simulations. The numerical simulations indicate that simple shear flow is realized all over the sample volume in the cone‐cone shear cell. The experimental results show that the drop breakup in the cone‐cone shear cell is equivalent to the breakup under simple shear realized in the shear gap of a conventional device, i.e., the Searle device. Critical capillary numbers are calculated from the experimental data and show breakup behavior as predicted by single‐drop experiments. Thus, the cone‐cone shear cell proved to be suitable to study emulsification mechanisms in simple shear flow.     

Single drop breakup in turbulent flow

The breakup process of a single drop in homogeneous isotropic turbulence was studied using direct numerical simulations. A diffuse interface free energy lattice Boltzmann method was applied. The detailed visualization of the breakup process confirmed breakup mechanisms previously outlined such as initial, independent, and cascade breakups. High‐resolution simulations allowed to visualize another drop breakup mechanism, burst breakup, which occurs when the mother drop has a large volume, and the flow is highly turbulent. The simulations indicate that the type of the breakup mechanism is a strong function of mother drop size and energy input. Large mother drops in highly turbulent flow fields are more likely to burst, producing a large number of drops of the size close to the Kolmogorov length scale. Small drops in moderate turbulence tend to break only once (initial breakup). The interfacial energy of a drop was tracked as a function of time during drop deformation and breakage. The maximum energy level of the deformed mother drop was compared to commonly used estimates of critical energy necessary to break a drop. Our results show that these reference levels of critical energy are usually underestimated. Moreover, in some cases even if the critical energy level was exceeded, the drop did not break because the time of the interaction between the drop and the eddies was not enough to finish the breakup. The numerical insight presented here can be used as a guideline for the selection of assumptions and simplifications behind breakup kernels.     

Development of polymer blend morphology during compounding in a twin-screw extruder. Part I: Droplet dispersion and coalescence—a review

The theoretical and experimental data on the breakup of droplets are reviewed. Several factors influence development of droplets: flow type and its intensity, viscosity ratio, elasticity of polymers, composition, thermodynamic interactions, time, etc. For Newtonian systems undergoing small, linear deformation, both the viscosity ratio and the capillary number control deformability of drops. On the other hand, the breakup process can be described by the dimensionless breakup time and the critical capillary number. Drops are more efficiently broken in elongational flow than in shear, especially when the viscosity ratio λ ? 3. The drop deformation and breakup seems to be more difficult in viscoelastic systems than in Newtonian ones. There is no theory able to describe the deformability of viscoelastic droplet suspended in a viscoelastic or even Newtonian medium. The effect of droplets coalescence on the final morphology ought to be considered, even at low concentration of the dispersed phase, ?_d ? 0.005. Several drop breakup and coalescence theories were briefly reviewed. However, they are of little direct use for quantitative prediction of the polymer blend morphology during compounding in a twin-screw extruder. Their value is limited to serving as general guides to the process modeling.     

The interfacial tension between a thermotropic liquid crystalline copolyester and polyethersulfone: A comparison of methods

Three dynamic methods to determine the interfacial tension between the thermotropic liquid crystalline polymer (TLCP) Vectra A900 and polyethersulfone were evaluated: (1) thread breakup, (2) fiber retraction and (3) dynamic shear rheometry. The thread breakup and retraction methods, were suitable for measuring the interfacial tension, provided that the shear thinning flow behavior of the TLCP was taken into account. The viscosity of the TLCP during breakup or retraction was estimated from steady-shear measurements at the observed overall rate of deformation during growth of capillary instabilities or during retraction. The calculation of the interfacial tension from breakup rates of TLCP threads was improved by accounting for transient flow behavior during distortion growth using a single-element Maxwell model. Determination of the interfacial tension by oscillatory shear measurements on TLCP/PES dispersions using the emulsion model of Palierne, was not applicable for this system. Only for dispersions containing low TLCP volume fractions (e.g. 9 vol%) was there reasonable agreement between the emulsion model and measurements. At higher volume fractions agreement was poor, possibly because of different dynamic flow behavior of the TLCP in the pure form and in blends. The interfacial tension values obtained from thread breakup and fiber retraction ranged from 4 to 6 mN/m, which demonstrate that in-situ determination of the interfacial tension is possible for blends containing TLCPs, despite their complex flow behavior.     

Numerical investigation of upstream pressure fluctuation during growth and breakup of pendant drops

Growth and breakup of pendant drops from the tip of a capillary is of great importance due to its wide applications and the richness of the underlying physics. During the growth and breakup of a pendant drop, the size variation will produce pressure fluctuation in the upstream, which is studied numerically with the level set method to predict the interface. The numerical results are validated against experimental images showing the growth and breakup of pendant drops obtained from a high speed camera. The effects of the surface tension and the outer diameter of the capillary on the amplitude and the period of the pressure fluctuation are examined. Compared to other methods of surface tension measurement, this method shows potential advantages of its good accuracy, simplicity, and low cost.     

Sheet formation during drop deformation and breakup in polyethylene/polycarbonate systems sheared between parallel plates

A polycarbonate drop was sheared inside a polyethylene matrix in a transparent rotating parallel plate device at 220 °C and low shear rates. A flat sheet was formed during the initial shearing of the drop. The drop then developed into either a thin thread or a sheet with a thin cylindrical tip. Sheet formation was found to occur at a critical strain or time. A stress ratio (S_r) between the matrix breakup stress, made up of the matrix normal stress and viscous stress, and the drop restoring stress, made up of the drop normal stress and the interfacial stress, is used to characterize the sheet formation during the drop deformation and breakup process. It was found that the viscosity ratio (η_r), stress ratio (S_r) and Deborah number (De) of the system could be used to predict the drop deformation and breakup.     

In situ visualization of drop deformation,erosion, and breakup in high viscosity ratio polymeric systems under high shearing stress conditions

In this paper, deformation and breakup under simple shear of single molten polymer drops in a polymer matrix were investigated. Flow visualization was carried out in a Couette‐Flow apparatus under relatively high shear rates and temperatures up to 230°C. Drop/Matrix combinations were composed of polystyrene drops of 0.5–0.6 mm in diameter in polyethylene matrix, and ethylene–propylene copolymer drops of approximately the same size in polypropylene matrix. The deformation and breakup processes were studied under steady state and time‐dependent shearing conditions. Either for steady state or time‐dependant shearing conditions, drop elasticity generated at relatively high shear rates helped the drops to align perpendicular to the flow direction, i.e., parallel to vorticity axis. Also, the most striking non‐Newtonian effects for the high viscosity ratio systems were the surface erosion and the drop splitting mechanisms. The particles eroded off the main droplet surface were very fine, in the range of 10–50 μm, and led to a significant reduction in main drop size before its final breakup. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 100: 2582–2591, 2006     

BUOYANCY-DRIVEN MOTION OF DROPS AND BUBBLES IN A PERIODICALLY CONSTRICTED CAPILLARY

Buoyancy-driven motion of viscous drops and air bubbles through a vertical capillary with periodic constrictions is studied. Experimental measurements of the average rise velocity of buoyant drops are reported for a range of drop sizes in a variety of two-phase systems. The instantaneous drop shapes at various axial positions within the capillary are also quantitatively characterized using digital image analysis. Periodic corrugations of the capillary wall are found to have a substantial retarding effect on the mobility of drops in comparison with previous experimental results in a straight cylindrical capillary. For systems characterized by small Bond numbers, drop deformations are found to be periodic. In large Bond number systems, however, drop breakup eventually occurs as the drop size is increased beyond a critical limit. The observed mode of breakup is a tail-pinching process similar to that observed by Oibricht and Leal (1983) for pressure-driven motion of low viscosity ratio drops through a sinusoidally constricted capillary. In contrast to their results, however, the same mode of breakup was also observed for systems with O (1) viscosity ratios,     

电场作用下液滴分裂动力学行为的格子Boltzmann模拟

采用格子Boltzmann方法（LBM）伪势模型,耦合流场和电场控制方程,研究了电场作用下油水共存体系中水滴分裂的动力学行为及特性,借助形变率衡量液滴的形变大小,展现了液滴从形变至分裂的动态演变过程,分析了外加电场大小和液滴内外介电常数比对液滴分裂行为的影响。结果表明：外加电场能促使液滴发生振荡形变,且存在临界电毛细数和临界介电常数比决定液滴是否发生分裂：高于临界值,液滴形变率振荡幅度随时间不断增长,最终发生分裂;低于临界值,则液滴形变率振荡幅度不断衰减,并最终趋于一稳定值。在此基础上,综合考虑电场强度与介电常数比的影响,提出了基于现有电毛细数的修正电毛细数唯一地表征电场作用下液滴分裂与否。     

水在非相溶油中滴流雾化的界面追踪模拟

基于欧拉法和流体体积函数建立了描述相界面运动、变形、破碎等复杂变化的界面追踪模型(VOF-CSF),该模型采用了二相界面重构技术,并考虑了界面张力和接触角的影响,将水在非相溶油中滴流雾化形成液滴过程简化为二维轴对称数值模拟,模拟了层流环境中低喷射流率下液滴形成的全过程.模拟结果表明:在滴流雾化方式下,液滴形成过程由液滴...