Bolt length requirement in underground openings

A parametric study has been carried out using the numerical analysis code FLAC^3D to obtain the influence of various shapes of underground openings on the maximum induced boundary stress. Five shapes—viz. circular, horseshoe, rectangular, elongated D-shape and elliptical—have been considered. For each shape, four tunnel depths and five horizontal in situ stress models have been taken for the study of induced boundary stresses.The values of maximum and minimum induced boundary stresses in the roof and wall have been obtained from the analyses. This data has subsequently been used to develop correlations to estimate the normalized maximum and minimum boundary stresses, which have been subsequently compared with the strength of the rock mass obtained from the Sheorey's non-linear failure criterion for three rock masses represented by three values of Bieniawski's RMR and three values of crushing strength of intact rock material. The values of minimum factor of safety at the roof and the wall have been collected from all the plots. Using these data sets, different correlations have been developed to estimate the minimum factor of safety (f_min) in the roof and wall.Since the bolt length should be normalized with the opening size, some more computer models have been run with varying tunnel width of 5 and 20 m besides the earlier 10 m size to obtain the correlations for estimating the bolt length. The depth of factor of safety contour of 1.5 from the opening periphery has been picked up from all these models and the correlations have been developed for estimating the roof and wall bolt length for the five shapes of underground openings. The correlations for bolt length show that in addition to the shape of underground openings and in situ stress, the bolt length also varies with the rock mass type. These correlations have been verified for field cases of elongated D-shape openings.     

热-水-应力耦合弹塑性二维有限元程序研制

通过从已有的应力平衡方程、水连续性方程、能量守恒方程和弹塑性矩阵入手,使用Galerkin方法。将各控制方程分别在空间域和时间域进行离散,初步开发出了一个用于分析饱和岩土介质中热-水-应力耦合弹塑性问题的二维有限元程序。通过一维固结问题的有限元解与太沙基解析解的对比,以及对一个简化的核废料地下处置的热-水-应力耦合问题的数值计算,验证了本程序的正确性。     

官庄铁矿深埋破碎矿体开采岩体变形测试分析

 以大量实测资料为基础,分析官庄铁矿北区深埋破碎厚矿体开采引起的围岩变形和地表移动规律。实测结果表明,官庄铁矿北区地表下沉属于连续下沉,岩层破坏主要是缓慢型破坏。分析过程中,把几种实测分析方法和数值分析法有机结合在一起,形成岩体移动变形综合研究方法,对地下开采引起的岩体移动机制进行具体分析。分析中所采用的实测分析类方法包括蠕变试验分析、地表移动观测分析、围岩变形监测分析、原岩应力量测分析;数值分析类方法包括ANSYS和FLAC。结合官庄铁矿工程实例,通过具体测试分析,探讨深部开采岩体移动变形规律及特点,即深部开采覆岩移动变形具有均匀、整体压缩变形等特点,地表移动连续且周期较长。实践证明,所采用的综合研究方法是分析岩体移动和地表下沉机制的有效途径。     

Triaxial creep tests and back analysis of time-dependent behavior of Siah Bisheh cavern by 3-Dimensional Distinct Element Method

Time dependent effects or creep behavior of rocks has great importance in further development of knowledge in the field of rock mechanics. An increase of pressure on support system due to creep behavior of rock is one of the most important issues in underground structure with weak surrounding rock mass. In this contribution a time-dependent behavior analysis of Siah Bisheh pumped storage powerhouse cavern with complex geometry being under construction on the Chalus River at the north of Iran were investigated. The cavern surrounded rocks containing Shale, Limestone, Sandstone and igneous rock in major parts is located in Alborz Structural Zone. The cavern is being built in a region that is highly prone to sheared and faulted zones. Therefore, it is essential to analyze and design underground structures to prevent any serious long-term damages in this region. The rock mass may exhibit continuous or discontinuous deformations due to excavation of large underground openings; therefore, deformation include shearing of joints and creep deformation of rock material. Because of the fractured and jointed rock mass, the Discrete Element method used to back analysis the time-dependent behavior of the Siah Bisheh cavern. In addition, triaxial creep tests were performed on rock specimens in order to estimate the time-dependent behavior of rock around the cavern. The creep tests and in situ measurements were employed to estimate parameters of power constitutive creep model being able to model the primary and secondary creep regions of rock masses implemented in the 3-Dimensional Distinct Element Code. Simulation results show good agreement with monitoring data. By excavating the lower stages of the cavern, some instantaneous deformation occurs in displacement-time curve of the crown.     

Impact of the mechanical characteristics of weak rocks and trona ore beds on the main drift deformation at the beypazari mine, Turkey

In northern Turkey, the Main Drift, T-2000, and a roadway, T-3000, were excavated for Beypazari trona (natural soda) underground mine project between the years 1999 and 2001. This work was one of the most important mining projects in Turkey in the last decade. T-2000 was designed as a main drift with a length of 965 m, 14° inclined and excavated with a cross-sectional area of 18 m². The T-3000 roadway was driven in the trona beds for the first production panel. In this study, in situ and laboratory studies have been made to define the formations through which the drift has been driven. In situ engineering geology measurements were carried out consisting of field observation, mapping, boreholes and laboratory tests on samples collected from the trona field and the boreholes. After drift excavation and support installation, the deformations and the loads on the supports were measured. As a result of this study, the deformational characteristics of the trona ore beds and weak rocks and their effect on the main drift (T-2000) deformation have been determined. The importance of this study lies in the fact that most natural soda mines in the world apply room and pillar mining methods. This study is probably the first investigation on underground openings with steel-set support systems and rock deformations in natural soda beds.     

江垭水电站地下洞群三维变形块体稳定分析

根据江垭地下厂房厂区外围正在开挖施工的洞室主要结构面出露情况，应用三维变形块体与弹塑性摩擦接触理论，初步分析了厂区可能存在不稳定块体的数量、规模、坍滑方式和方向，预测了该类不稳定块体对三大洞室开挖施工的影响，并提出对预防措施的意见，可望对设计、施工有所帮助     

On the 3D numerical modelling of the time-dependent development of the damage zone around underground galleries during and after excavation

This paper presents a 3D numerical simulation of the mechanical behaviour of deep underground galleries with a special emphasis on time-dependent development of the Excavation Damage Zone (EDZ). The rock mass behaviour is modelled by a damageable viscoplastic constitutive law in which both viscous and damage parameters are taken into account. Finite-element analysis investigates the evolution of near-field stresses, progressive development of the damage zone as well as delayed displacements during the sequential construction process of the gallery. The influence of the orientation of in situ stresses with respect to the gallery axis is also highlighted. Moreover, the effect of a support system is shown to reduce the damage zone and the displacements around the gallery. The conclusion provides some guidelines for a computer aided analysis of the design of underground openings.     

厚覆盖岩层下采矿引起地表变形的三维有限元分析

介绍了在厚覆盖岩层条件下，确定地下采矿引起地表变形特征的三维有限元弹塑性计算分析工作。     

Fuzzy models for analysis of rock mass displacements due to underground mining in mountainous areas

The displacement and deformations of rock mass due to underground mining has often resulted in major disasters throughout the world, frequently inflicting heavy losses of life and damage to property. And these disasters have motivated the development of rock mass mechanics. The prediction of displacement of rock mass and their surface effects is an important problem of the rock mass mechanics in the excavation activities especially the coal and metal mining in mountainous areas. Based on results of the statistical analysis of a large amount of measured data in mining engineering, the fundamental fuzzy model of displacements and deformations of rock mass is established by using the theory of fuzzy probability measures. The theories of both two- and three-dimensional problems are developed and applied to the analysis of engineering problems in excavation and underground mining in mountainous areas. The agreement of the theoretical results with the field measurements shows that our model is satisfactory and the formulae obtained are valid and thus can be effectively used for predicting the displacements and deformations and the safety evaluation of the buildings on the ground.     

The elasto-plastic response of underground excavations in rock masses that satisfy the Hoek–Brown failure criterion

This paper is intended to illustrate the relationship between the Hoek–Brown parameters describing the strength of rock masses and the mechanical response of underground openings.A formulation of the elasto-plastic behavior of rock in terms of the Hoek–Brown criterion is presented. The analysis assumes that the joint system present in the rock mass has no preferred orientation so that the medium can be considered to behave as an isotropic continuum. It is shown that appropriate scaling of the Hoek–Brown parameters leads to considerable simplification in defining the elasto-plastic response of the rock mass.The classical case in which the excavation process is treated as a uniform reduction of internal pressure in symmetrically loaded cylindrical and spherical cavities is considered. Closed-form expressions are given for the extent of plastic behavior and the related stress and displacement fields. A dimensionless graphical representation of these solutions is provided that allows accurate estimates of the response of excavations in Hoek–Brown materials to be made quickly and easily. Examples are given to illustrate the use of the graphs.Illustrative applications of the derived closed-form solutions are also described. The construction of ground reaction curves for the design of cylindrical tunnels according to the convergence–confinement method and a case study of stability analysis of spherical cavities produced by underground nuclear explosions in French Polynesian atolls are discussed.     

A methodology for studying the high wall displacement of large scale underground cavern complexes and it’s applications

A great number of numerical simulations of multiple schemes were conducted to investigate the stability of underground cavern complexes in three representative hydropower stations in China. The purpose was to study the displacement law of side walls of underground openings under different conditions. In the calculation, four major typical rocks, four overburden thicknesses, and five geo-stress conditions were taken into account. The best-fit formulae to predict the displacement of key points on the side walls of underground openings were obtained by using the dimensionless technique. The formulations can describe the effects of rock quality, overburden thickness, horizontal in situ stress, the height of the power house and the spacing between openings. The formulation/methodology was used to predict the side wall displacements of nine underground complexes in China. A comparison analysis showed that the predicted values were in close agreement with those obtained by field measurements and by back analysis.     

Re-fracture process and mechanical characteristics of cracked rock samples

Most of the rocks surrounding deep underground construction consists of cracked rock. The deformation of the surroundings is complicated, and not only involves slipping, but also involves re-fracturing. Available results in conventional uniaxial and triaxial experiments of rock samples can be used to analyze deformations of supports and surrounding rocks on underground constructions, but they cannot reflect the evolution of the re-fracture processes and the mechanical characteristics of the cracked surrounding rock mass. The purpose of this paper is to study deformations and re-fracture characteristics of surrounding rock mass in deep underground engineering. First, deformations and cracking characteristics of intact rock samples are analyzed on the basis of uniaxial and triaxial experiments. The lateral constraint testing method is then applied to study deformation and re-fracturing characteristics of cracked rock mass. The lateral constraint test provides different lateral stiffness to the cracked rock samples and causes different failure modes in the cracked rock samples. Conditions for re-fracturing have been derived and validated through the lateral constraint tests, which can be used to study load capacities and stabilities of surrounding rock in deep underground engineering under structural constraints formed by different supports.     

Stress, instability and design of underground excavations

When the stress-induced risks to a projects warrant it, in situ stress must be measured. However, as the stress-induced risks increase, i.e., the stress magnitudes approach the rock mass strength, the confidence in commonly used stress measurement techniques decrease. The design of underground openings at depth requires knowledge of the in situ stress state, yet it is for these design conditions where our confidence in stress measurement techniques is at its lowest. To quantify the stress state for these conditions, elements of the Observational Design Method have to be used. These elements rely on the development of a geological site model, documented observations of over stressed rock in pillars or near the boundary of underground openings, and iterative two- and three-dimensional numerical modelling calibrated with observations. Examples are provided to illustrate how the philosophy of Observational Design Method can be used to infer the in situ stress state.     

Rock mass response for lined rock caverns subjected to high internal gas pressure

The storage of hydrogen gas in underground lined rock caverns (LRCs) enables the implementation of the first fossil-free steelmaking process to meet the large demand for crude steel. Predicting the response of rock mass is important to ensure that gas leakage due to rupture of the steel lining does not occur. Analytical and numerical models can be used to estimate the rock mass response to high internal pressure; however, the fitness of these models under different in situ stress conditions and cavern shapes has not been studied. In this paper, the suitability of analytical and numerical models to estimate the maximum cavern wall tangential strain under high internal pressure is studied. The analytical model is derived in detail and finite element (FE) models considering both two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) geometries are presented. These models are verified with field measurements from the LRC in Skallen, southwestern Sweden. The analytical model is inexpensive to implement and gives good results for isotropic in situ stress conditions and large cavern heights. For the case of anisotropic horizontal in situ stresses, as the conditions in Skallen, the 3D FE model is the best approach.     

The deformation modulus of rock masses — comparisons between in situ tests and indirect estimates

Three methods of in situ deformation modulus (Em) measurements of rock masses have been described, analysed and compared. The plate jacking (PJT) test, where the deformations are measured by extensometers in drill holes, gives generally the best results. A factor of 2.5 has been found between PJT and the Goodman jack test, and the plate loading test. From analyses of the results it has been pointed out that the damage from blasting of the test adit reduces the magnitude of test results with a factor between 2 and 4. The existing equations for indirect estimates of the rock mass deformation modulus from classification systems have been analysed and adjustment suggested. Taking into consideration the uncertainties connected to in situ deformation measurements caused by blast damage, test procedure and test method, a good characterization of the ground may give comparable, or possibly better Em values, using the RMi or the RMR system than the in situ tests. The RMR system gives, however, values that are too high for Em in massive rock.     

Determination of the natural stress state in a Brazilian rock mass by back analysing excavation measurements: a case study

The Serra da Mesa Hydroelectric Power Plant, located in the Tocantins river, 210 km north of Brasilia, Brazil, has been completed and power (1200 MW) has been generated since 1998. This project includes one of the largest underground structures in Brazil, totalling 550,000 m³ of underground excavations in rock for the hydraulic circuit which was excavated in very high quality granite. Geotechnical investigations, laboratory tests and geological mapping showed that the rock mass could be considered as a continuous, homogeneous, isotropic and linearly elastic (CHILE) material.

In situ tests, for obtaining the natural stress tensor, namely hydraulic fracturing and small flat jack tests (SFJ), were executed. The hydraulic fracturing tests were performed in two boreholes, at the planned position of the future underground structures. SFJ were executed in a test gallery especially constructed for the purpose. These latter tests confirmed the in situ rock stress data obtained from the hydraulic fracturing tests.

This paper presents a new technique for interpretation of the SFJ results. This is achieved by inputting the SFJ measurements into a 3D program that compiles the influence matrix of the excavated rock mass domain and then, via the least square technique, the determination of the stress tensor. All the equations are fully developed and the methodology is presented in its entirety. The successful application of the methodology is also presented, with comparisons between the results obtained and the in situ stress tensor determined by other methods.     

Excavation-induced damage studies at the Underground Research Laboratory

The Underground Research Laboratory (URL) is situated in the Lac du Bonnet granite batholith, in southeastern Manitoba, Canada. The URL was developed to study issues related to the deep geologic disposal of used fuel from nuclear reactors and has developed into an International Atomic Energy Agency recognized geotechnical center of excellence. Extensive rock mechanics research has been conducted, including work to understand the character and extent of excavation damage. Experience at the URL has shown that damage exists around underground openings and that the damage develops from the energy imparted to the rock by the excavation method and by redistribution of the in situ stress field around the excavated openings. Subsequent near-by excavations, removal of loose material from the existing tunnel, thermal loads and pore pressure changes will all influence the development and extent of rock damage, as does the rock type and its fabric. Studies at the URL have shown that in highly stressed rock, damage will develop around underground openings even when a low-energy excavation method is used and that properly designing the excavation geometry and orientation plays a major role in constructing stable openings. Two zones of excavation-affected rock have been shown to exist from studies at the URL; (1) a zone of irreversibly damaged rock surrounding the excavation, which may include failed zones, inner and outer damage zones and (2) a zone of excavation disturbance where the in situ stresses are influence by the excavation no damage is measurable. Measurements of the properties of the damaged rock (ultrasonic velocity, transmissivity) using a variety of instruments have shown that a less intensively damaged outer zone surrounds a more highly damaged inner zone. The inner damage zone may have zones of failed rock depending on stress concentrations relative to rock strength and damage imparted by excavation method. The inner damage zone is attributed to the effects of the excavation method and stress redistribution and the outer damage zone is attributed to the effects of stress redistribution alone. In lower stressed rock the extent of the outer zone is much less than for an opening in highly stressed rock with the same excavation shape and orientation relative to in situ stresses. The excavation disturbed zone describes the volume of rock surrounding the damage zone where the stress redistribution is too small to permanently change rock properties (unless some other stress increase, such as thermal loading, is added), and it is also characterized non-permanent but potentially long-term changes in hydraulic head.     

Estimation of the three-dimensional in situ stress field around a large deep underground cavern group near a valley

Understanding three-dimensional(3D) in situ stress field is of key importance for estimating the stability of large deep underground cavern groups near valleys.However,the complete 3D in situ stress fields around large deep underground cavern groups are difficult to determine based on in situ stress data from a limited number of measuring points due to the insufficient representativeness and unreliability of such measurements.In this study,an integrated approach for estimating the 3D in situ stress field around a large deep underground cavern group near a valley is developed based on incomplete in situ stress measurements and the stress-induced failures of tunnels excavated prior to the step excavation of the cavern group.This integrated approach is implemented via four interrelated and progressive basic steps,i.e.inference of the regional tectonic stress field direction,analyses of in situ stress characteristics and measurement reliability,regression-based in situ stress field analysis and reliability assessment,and modified in situ stress field analysis and reliability verification.The orientations and magnitudes of the3D in situ stress field can be analyzed and obtained at a strategic level following these four basic steps.First,the tectonic stress field direction around the cavern group is deduced in accordance with the regional tectonic framework and verified using a regional crustal deformation velocity map.Second,the reliability of the in situ stress measurements is verified based on the locations and depths of stressinduced brittle failures in small tunnels(such as exploratory tunnels and pilot tunnels) within the excavation range of the cavern group.Third,considering the influences of the valley topography and major geological structures,the 3D in situ stress field is regressed using numerical simulation and multiple linear regression techniques based on the in situ stress measurements.Finally,the regressed in situ stress field is further modified and reverified based on the stress-induced brittle failures of small tunnels and the initial excavation of the cavern group.A case study of the Shuangjiangkou underground cavern group demonstrates that the proposed approach is reliable for estimating the 3D in situ stress fields of large deep underground cavern groups near valleys,thus contributing to the optimization of practical excavation and design of mitigating the instability of the surrounding rock masses during step excavations.     

Effect of intermediate principal stress on strength of anisotropic rock mass

The Mohr-Coulomb criterion needs to be modified for highly anisotropic rock material and jointed rock masses. Taking σ₂ into account, a new strength criterion is suggested because both σ₂ and σ₃ would contribute to the normal stress on the existing plane of weakness. This criterion explains the enhancement of strength (σ₂ – σ3) in the underground openings because σ₂ along the tunnel axis is not relaxed significantly. Another cause of strength enhancement is less reduction in the mass modulus in tunnels due to constrained dilatancy. Empirical correlations obtained from data from block shear tests and uniaxial jacking tests have been suggested to estimate new strength parameters. A correlation for the tensile strength of the rock mass is presented. Finally, Hoek and Brown theory is extended to account for σ₂. A common strength criterion for both supported underground openings and rock slopes is suggested.     

软弱夹层对深部地下洞室围岩损伤模式的影响

软弱夹层等不良结构面对深部地下洞室的围岩稳定有着重要影响,应用有限元数值分析系统RFPA对软弱夹层影响下的深部地下洞室围岩损伤演化过程进行了模拟分析,重点研究了软弱夹层的展布位置、地应力大小对洞室围岩损伤区模式的影响.分析表明,有软弱夹层时,地下洞室开挖后围岩应力分布恶化,围岩应力扰动范围增大、相应的损伤区范围增大;地应力越大时,侧压系数的大小更多地主导着洞室围岩的损伤模式.研究成果可望对深部地下洞室选址及施工设计有借鉴意义.