Fatigue performance of metastable β titanium alloys: Effects of microstructure and surface finish

This investigation examined the role of microstructure and surface finish on the high cycle fatigue (HCF) performance of TIMETAL LCB (Ti-6.8Mo-4.5Fe-1.5Al). The as-received microstructure of LCB consisted of elongated β grains with a semicontinuous grain boundary α layer. In contrast, a fine equiaxed β + spheroidized α LCB microstructure was achieved by hot swaging and solution (recrystallization) anneal. The latter modification of the prior β grain structure, together with the size, morphology, and distribution of the primary α phase, resulted in a significant enhancement in the tensile and HCF properties. Furthermore, prestraining (PS), as would be expected during the fabrication of an automotive coil spring, and prior to aging for 30 min at temperatures between 500 and 550 °C, led to additional increases in tensile strength. In contrast, the HCF performance was always reduced when PS prior to aging was included in the overall processing procedure. Finally, shot-peening and roller-burnishing both resulted in an increased fatigue life in the finite life regimen; however, significant reductions in the 10⁷ cycle fatigue strengths were observed when these procedures were used. These observations have been explained by including the effect of process-induced residual tensile stresses in the fatigue analysis, resulting in subsurface fatigue crack nucleation. This paper was presented at the Beta Titanium Alloys of the 00’s Symposium sponsored by the Titanium Committee of TMS, held during the 2005 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition, February 13–16, 2005 in San Francisco, CA.     

Study on Fatigue Properties of Turbine Disk Groove Modeling Specimens of GH4720 Alloy

基于航空发动机涡轮盘榫槽结构特点及其工作状态,采用榫槽模拟件对GH4720合金的疲劳失效机理和裂纹扩展寿命进行了实验研究和理论分析。研究结果表明:GH4720合金榫槽模拟件的疲劳失效表现为3个阶段:(i)模拟涡轮盘榫槽处由于较高的应力集中而产生滑移,进而萌生裂纹;(ii)随着应力集中和循环载荷的持续,相邻晶粒间位错开动、发生滑移,裂纹在晶粒间传递;(iii)随着应力强度因子范围增大,剪应力和主应力交互作用、滑移系开动及位错在不同滑移系间的运动,裂纹快速扩展。在实验基础上建立了GH4720合金的疲劳裂纹扩展寿命模型,基于有限元分析的榫槽处的应力和裂纹扩展寿命模型得到的裂纹扩展寿命与实验结果相符,表明该裂纹扩展寿命模型可用于工程中预测涡轮盘的剩余寿命。     

Microstructural extremes and the transition from fatigue crack initiation to small crack growth in a polycrystalline nickel-base superalloy

The fatigue behavior of the nickel-base superalloy René 88 DT has been investigated at room temperature with fully reversed loading in an ultrasonic fatigue apparatus operating at a frequency close to 20 kHz. A characterization protocol based on the electron backscatter diffraction technique has been developed to identify the combination of microstructural features within crack initiation sites and surrounding neighborhoods that leads to the transition from initiation to early small crack growth. Surface grains that were more than three times the average grain size, that were favorably oriented for cyclic slip localization and that also contained Σ3 twin boundaries inclined to the loading axis were most favorable for fatigue crack initiation. Fatigue cracks subsequently grew in grain clusters within which grains are misoriented by less than 20° relative to the initiation grains. More highly misoriented neighboring grains resulted in crack arrest. The material characteristics that promote crack initiation and small crack growth exist only at the extreme tails of the microstructural distributions. The implications for modeling of fatigue life and fatigue life variability are discussed.     

Influence of weld geometry and process on fatigue crack growth characteristics of AISI 304L cruciform joints containing lack of penetration defects

Abstract

The influence of weld geometry in conjunction with the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and gas metal arc welding (GMAW) processes on fatigue properties of AISI 304L load carrying transverse fillet welded cruciform joints, containing lack of penetration (LOP) defects, has been studied. The fatigue lives of the joints were evaluated using conventional S -N (stress - number of cycles to failure) and fracture mechanics methods. The fatigue lives were calculated according to the two stage approach in which both the fatigue crack initiation and the crack propagation phases were considered. Constant amplitude fatigue experiments with stress ratio R=0 were carried out using a 100 kN servohydraulic Dartec universal testing machine at a frequency of 30 Hz. An automatic crack monitoring system based on crack propagation gauges was used to obtain the crack initiation and propagation data during the fatigue process. The predicted life was compared with the experimental values. It was found that the fatigue lives of the joints fabricated via GTAW were longer than those of the corresponding GMAW joints. It was also observed that the fillet geometry plays a major role in determining the failure mode and life. Test results have been compared with the BS 5400 design curve.     

金属表层梯度微结构对力学性能和裂纹扩展的影响

表层梯度结构广泛应用于工程材料,经表面强化技术处理后,零件表层结构呈梯度分布,可以改善零件的服役能力.综述了金属表层梯度微结构对力学性能和裂纹扩展的影响,从微观结构和力学性能的角度,结合非均匀材料中裂纹的扩展行为,考虑了微结构和力学性能之间的相互影响规律,分析了梯度结构中影响裂纹扩展的因素.经表面强化后,材料表面晶粒细化,晶粒尺寸沿纵深方向呈现梯度分布,改变裂纹萌生位置,同时对裂纹扩展起到阻碍,使零件疲劳寿命延长.梯度结构中金相组织由表层单一组织到芯部多相组织的转变,引起表层硬度和残余压应力向纵深方向逐渐减小,表面压应力可以减弱外力的作用,从而影响疲劳寿命.然而,梯度结构中微观组织和力学性能互相关联,像晶粒和位错能改变残余应力的分布,也会对裂纹扩展路径产生影响,如何定量表征他们的影响还有待进一步研究.     

Microstructure and fatigue properties of plasma transferred arc alloying TiC-W-Cr on gray cast iron

In this paper, TiC-W-Cr powders were alloyed on grey cast iron by plasma transferred arc (PTA). The alloying samples were characterized the microstructure, microhardness, fatigue life and fatigue crack growth. From the results, it is indicated that two distinguishing region: alloying zone, heat affected zone are formed on the surface after PTA alloying. The alloying zone mainly consists of primary austenite, martensite, a eutectic of (Fe,Cr)₇C₃ carbide and austenite as well as the uniformly distributed un-melted TiC particles. PTA alloying TiC-W-Cr eliminates the stress concentration at the edge of graphite and produced hard carbide, resulting in frequent crack deflection. As a result, the Weibull distribution of fatigue life demonstrates that PTA alloying TiC-W-Cr exhibits longer lives compared to matrix and PTA hardening without reinforcement, but more scattered. In addition, on the basis of the careful observation of fatigue crack growth, it is shown that the fatigue crack growth rate could be retarded by PTA alloying TiC-W-Cr at low stress intensity.     

喷涂层接触疲劳损伤的声发射研究

用超音速等离子喷涂设备在45钢基体上制备了铁基合金涂层。以球盘式疲劳试验机为平台,研究了涂层的接触疲劳损伤行为,探测并分析了涂层在不同应力水平下疲劳损伤的声发射反馈信号。结果表明,涂层的接触疲劳损伤过程主要包括弹塑性变形、裂纹萌生和缓慢扩展、裂纹亚临界扩展、裂纹失稳扩展4个阶段。裂纹萌生和缓慢扩展阶段是决定疲劳寿命长短的主要阶段。接触应力越大,裂纹亚临界扩展时间和失稳扩展时间越短。涂层的最终失效模式可以根据裂纹失稳扩展阶段声发射幅值的最大值来判断,发生点蚀失效时幅值最大值约为82.4 dB,剥落失效时幅值最大值约为90.2 dB,分层失效时幅值最大值约为91.3 dB。     

Investigation of fatigue crack initiation in Ti-6Al-4V during tensile-tensile fatigue

Fatigue crack initiation in Ti-6Al-4V has been investigated in high cycle fatigue (HCF) and low cycle fatigue (LCF) regimes at stress ratio R=0.1 using the replication technique. In all four tested α/β microstructures, the crack was initiated by fracture of equiaxed alpha grain. Fractured alpha grains are seen on the fracture surface as flat facets with features characteristics of cleavage fracture. In the regime of low stress amplitudes and in the absence of reverse loading, cleavage fracture contributes to crack initiation and early stages of crack growth in Ti-6Al-4V. This mechanism is discussed in relation to the anomalous mean stress fatigue behavior exhibited by this alloy.     

激光喷丸强化对电化学充氢316L奥氏体不锈钢振动疲劳性能的影响

研究了激光喷丸强化对电化学充氢316L奥氏体不锈钢振动疲劳性能的影响.测试分析了不同激光功率密度喷丸316L不锈钢充氢试样的残余应力、显微硬度和微观组织结构,并对比研究其振动疲劳寿命和断口形貌.结果 显示,激光喷丸诱导材料表层位错密度增加,并有效细化晶粒,抑制了氢原子的入侵,同时复杂晶界和高密度位错增殖结构阻碍了氢原子...     

Prediction of Cold Dwell-Fatigue Crack Growth of Titanium Alloys

The dwell effect of the material can reduce the fatigue lives of titanium alloys at room temperature. A unified fatigue life prediction method developed by the authors' group is modified in this paper to predict dwell-fatigue crack growth taking into account the effects of dwell time and maximum stress. The modified model can be successfully used to predict the crack growth rate and calculate the fatigue life of different titanium alloys under pure fatigue and dwell-fatigue conditions. It is validated by comparing prediction results with the experimental data of several titanium alloys with different microstructures, dwell time, hydrogen contents, stress ratios and stress levels.     

Life prediction of titanium MMCs under low-cycle fatigue

Low-cycle fatigue failure in titanium metal matrix composites is caused by two separate damage mechanisms: fatigue crack growth in the Ti matrix and fiber breakage. Here, a coupled numerical model for predicting both crack growth and fiber breakage is developed and applied to predict low-cycle fatigue lives in a SiC-fiber reinforced Ti matrix composite. A three-dimensional finite element model containing a matrix crack, nucleated on the first loading cycle in the reaction layer around a fiber, that is bridged by SiC fibers is used to calculate both the matrix crack tip stress intensity factor and the local fiber stress concentrations due to the matrix crack, as a function of the crack size. The crack tip stress intensity factor is used in a Paris-law model for the growth rate of the matrix crack. The local stress distributions in the fibers are used as the effective “applied” load within a three-dimensional Greens Function method that simulates the fiber damage process at any fixed fatigue crack size. Fiber failure preferentially occurs within the matrix crack region, where the fiber stresses are comparatively high, and composite failure occurs when the damage in this region is sufficient to drive fiber failure throughout the remainder of the composite in a crack-like fracture mode. A fatigue life threshold is predicted at about 80% of the quasistatic tensile strength, where the fiber bundle can survive even with a matrix crack extending throughout the entire cross-section. Predictions for the low-cycle fatigue of Ti-matrix (IMI834) reinforced with SCS-6 SiC fibers compare well with available experimental data at high stresses using pristine fiber strengths and no adjustable parameters. Using literature values for the fatigued fiber strength beyond 10⁴ cycles and no adjustable parameters, the experimental data are also well matched at lower stresses. The model demonstrates that fatigue life can be dependent on actual composite size and can be very sensitive to initial fiber damage.     

Stress-induced martensitic transformation in metastable austenitic stainless steels: Effect on fatigue crack growth rate

This paper addresses the influence of cyclic stress-induced martensitic transformation on fatigue crack growth rates in metastable austenitic stainless steels. At low applied stress and mean stress values in AISI type 301 stainless steel, fatigue crack growth rate is substantially retarded due to a cyclic stress-induced γ-α′ and γ-ε martensitic transformation occurring at the crack-tip plastic zone. It is suggested that the transformation products produce a compressive residual stress at the tip of the fatigue crack, which essentially lowers the effective stress intensity and hence retards the fatigue crack growth rate. At high applied stress or mean stress values, fatigue crack growth rates in AISI type 301 steels become almost equal to those of stable AISI type 302 alloy. As the amount of transformed products increases (with an increase in applied or mean stress), the strain-hardening effect brought about by the transformed martensite phase appears to accelerate fatigue crack growth, offsetting the contribution from the compressive residual stress produced by the positive volume change of γ → α′ or ε transformation.     

Fatigue crack/residual stress field interactions and their implications for damage-tolerant design

Residual stress fields are now widely accepted to have significant influence on fatigue crack growth. Tensile stresses have detrimental effects on fatigue lives, whereas compressive residual stresses can be beneficial. Control of fatigue lives via residual stress is now established in many industrial applications, using techniques such as shot peening or cold expansion. However, knowledge of the processes that occur when a fatigue crack grows through a pre-existing stress field is far from complete. Although the residual stress field will clearly have an effect on crack growth, the crack will equally have an effect on the residual stress field. The determination of this effect is not trivial, and direct measurement may be the designer’s best safeguard. This article outlines the complementary effects that a growing fatigue crack and a residual stress field have on each other. Two types of residual stress field are considered: mechanically induced and thermally induced. The results are discussed in terms of the implications that residual stress interactions have for damage-tolerant-based design.     

Kinetics of γ’ precipitation and its influence on fatigue crack growth behavior of a new single-crystal nickel- based superalloy (cmsx-4g) at room temperature

An investigation was carried out to determine the growth kinetics of γ precipitates in a newly developed single-crystal nickel-base superalloy containing rhenium (CMSX- 4G). The investigation also examined the influence of γ’ precipitates (size and distribution) on fatigue crack growth behavior of the material in a room-temperature ambient atmosphere. The influence of load ratio on fatigue threshold of the material and crack growth mechanisms in fatigue was also studied. Compact tension specimens were prepared from a single-crystal nickel-base superalloy, CMSX-4G, with the (001) crystallographic direction. These specimens were given two different heat treatments to produce two different γ’ size precipitates. Fatigue crack growth behavior of these materials was studied at three different load ratios (R = 0.10, 0.50, and 0.90) in room-temperature ambient atmosphere. The results of the present investigation demonstrate that rhenium additions in CMSX-4G substantially lowers the γ coarsening kinetics of this alloy. The smaller γ’ precipitate size was found to be beneficial for fatigue resistance and has resulted in a higher fatigue threshold and lower fatigue crack growth rate in the threshold region. The fatigue threshold was found to decrease with an increase in load ratio. The crack growth mechanism in the threshold region was found to occur by a combination of microvoid coalescence and striations.     

Effect of beta flecks on low-cycle fatigue properties of Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al

The effect of beta flecks on low-cycle fatigue (LCF) properties was investigated at room temperature for a high-temperature (α + β)-processed and also a β-processed Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al alloy. For both the (α + β)-processed and the β-processed material, beta flecks had a significant influence on LCF and tensile properties. The materials with beta flecks showed a loss in LCF life and ductility. Larger beta flecks resulted in lower LCF life and ductility. It seemed that β-forged material contained much smaller beta flecks but had a similar detrimental effect on LCF properties as the (α + β)-processed one. Based on the diffusion calculation, it could be concluded that chemical composition inhomogenieties could not be reduced by using beta forging in the 820 °C β region. Extensive light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations showed that beta flecks were susceptive to crack nucleation and propagation.     

The role of competing mechanisms in the fatigue-life variability of a titanium and gamma-TiAl alloy

The variability in fatigue lives of an α+β titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo) and a γ-TiAl-based alloy in stress vs. life space resulted from superposition of variability associated with two separate mechanisms. The mean lives of the two mechanisms diverged with decreasing stress level, giving rise to the variability. A life-prediction methodology based on the variability in the worst-case mechanism is suggested. The potential for reducing uncertainty and increasing the utilization of the useful life as compared to more traditional approaches is discussed. For more information, contact S.K. Jha, Universal Technology Corporation, 1270 N Fairfield Road, Dayton, OH 45432; (937) 255-0388; fax (937) 656-4840; e-mail sushantjha@hotmail.com     

Effect of corrosive environment on the fatigue crack initiation and propagation behavior of Al 5454-H32

Fatigue behavior of aluminum alloy 5454- H32 was studied under laboratory air and 3 % NaCl solution environment using smooth cylindrical and notched plate specimens. Presence of 3 % NaCl environment during fatigue loading drastically reduced alloy fatigue life. The deleterious effect was pronounced in both types of specimens in the long- life regions, where the fatigue lives were lowered by as much as a factor of 10. However, the sharply notched specimens showed only a modest reduction in fatigue life in corrosive environment. The severe influence of the corrosive environment in the long- life (low- stress) regime cannot be explained merely by the early initiation of the fatigue crack from surface pits; the environmental contribution in the early crack growth regime must also be considered an important factor. Fracture surface studies revealed extensive pitting and some secondary cracking in the crack initiation region. It was shown that lowered fatigue life in Al 5454- H32 occurs by early initiation of fatigue cracks from surface pits. In addition, a corrosion pitting and secondary cracking process may be operative in the small crack growth region. This could have enhanced the early crack growth rate and thus contributed to the lower fatigue life in the long- cycle region.     

AA6061填丝FSW T形接头特征及动静载特性分析

利用自主开发的填丝静止轴肩T形接头焊接工具开展了6061-T4铝合金填丝T形接头的焊接试验,获得了成形良好的无缺陷T形接头. 对接头内部成形、显微组织、硬度分布、静载强度及疲劳性能进行了测试与分析. 结果表明,接头轴肩影响区表面存在超细晶区,内部质量良好,焊核区不同位置填充材料与母材发生了不同程度的混合. 接头底板及筋板硬度较母材有不同程度的降低,拉伸测试中底板和筋板方向接头均断裂于热影响区,接头系数分别0.68和0.83. 过渡圆角明显提高了接头的疲劳性能,在2 × 106疲劳寿命下的具有90%置信度及97.5%存活率的特征疲劳强度可达101.4 MPa,远高于IIW建议的设计准则. 疲劳断口显示疲劳裂纹萌生于接头表面轴肩压入边缘,在交变载荷作用下向内部扩展,裂纹稳定扩展区可见明显的疲劳条带,断裂机制为穿晶断裂.     

Manufacture of a ??-titanium hollow shaft by incremental forming

Excellent mechanical properties and corrosion resistance combined with low weight qualify β-titanium materials for lightweight applications in aviation, automotive and energy engineering. Thus far, actual applications of these materials have been limited due to high material costs and limited processing knowledge. One approach for developing resource-efficient manufacturing methods is the application of incremental forming methods. This article focuses on the development of the incremental spin extrusion process, which creates hollow profiles from solid bars. This method allows hollow shape manufacturing with a much higher flexibility than other forming methods and a significantly improved material utilization in comparison to machining methods, such as deep hole drilling. Beta-titanium alloys basically have very good cold forming suitability and the resulting material properties can be controlled. The application of incremental forming methods with high hydrostatic compressive stress is a promising manufacturing approach. The β-titanium Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al material has an excellent combination of the properties strength, ductility and fatigue strength. In order to utilize these properties the forming conditions and the temperature control need to be optimized. The investigations show that the Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al material can be formed only in a narrow semi-hot forming temperature window. The paper describes the investigation and presents results on the design of partial forming process sequences, forming properties, microstructure formation and failure prevention. The process design objective is a very fine microstructure with a homogeneous secondary α-phase and very small grained β-phase.     

发动机喷管扩张密封片裂纹失效机理研究

航空发动机喷管扩张密封片采用JG4246A金属间化合物高温合金铸造。针对发动机工作过程中产生的扩张密封片裂纹故障,利用视频显微镜、扫描电镜等设备,通过对故障扩张密封片进行宏观检查、断口分析、表面形貌检查、材质分析以及JG4246A材料高温热模拟试验组织对比分析,确定扩张密封片裂纹的性质和失效机理。结果表明:扩张密封片裂纹为以热应力为主引发的疲劳裂纹;组织热模拟试验对比得出,故障部位承受的最高温度已超过JG4246A的许用温度1 200℃,组织中初生γ'相明显回溶,导致性能大幅降低;在冷热交变条件下,故障部位产生较大的热应力梯度,超过了材料的疲劳极限,从而最终导致疲劳开裂。提出提高铸造工艺和优化设计的改进建议。