A new concept of backfill design—Application of wick drains in backfilled stopes

Backfilling represents an environmentally friendly mining waste disposal technique. It is increasingly used in underground mines all over the world. However, its primary purpose remains to improve ground stability and to reduce ore dilution. Previous investigations have shown that fill drainage plays a key role in backfill and barricade design. With a poor drainage system in the backfilled stope, the required dimension of barricade, which is constructed at the base of the stope near the drift entrance, has to be increased. A poor backfill drainage system can also lead to a significant increase in drainage waiting time and further reduction in mining productivity. In this paper, the drainage of conventional backfill design in backfilled stopes is briefly reviewed. For the first time, the application of the wick drain is introduced in the backfill within mine stopes. The drainage improvement from the introduction of the wick drain is illustrated using numerical modeling.     

Stability analyses of vertically exposed cemented backfill:A revisit to Mitchell's physical model tests

Mitchell's solution is commonly used to determine the required strength of vertically exposed cemented backfill in mines. Developed for drained backfill, Mitchell model assumed a zero friction angle for the backfill. Physical model tests were performed. Good agreements were obtained between the required strengths predicted by the analytical solution and experimental results. However, it is well-known that zero friction angle can only be possible in terms of total stresses when geomaterials are submitted to unconsolidated and undrained conditions. A revisit to Mitchell's physical model tests reveals that both the laboratory tests performed for obtaining the shear strength parameters of the cemented backfill and the box stability tests were conducted under a condition close to undrained condition. This explains well the good agreement between Mitchell's solution and experimental results. Good agreements are equally obtained between Mitchell's experimental results and FLAC3 D numerical modeling of shortterm stability analyses of exposed cemented backfill.     

Numerical investigation into the effect of backfilling on coal pillar strength in highwall mining

This paper attempts to quantify the effect of backfilling on pillar strength in highwall mining using numerical modelling. Calibration against the new empirical strength formula for highwall mining was conducted to obtain the material parameters used in the numerical modelling. With the obtained coal strength parameters, three sets of backfill properties were investigated. The results reveal that the behavior of pillars varies with the type and amount of backfill as well as the pillar width to mining height ratio(w/h). In case of cohesive backfill, generally 75% backfill shows a significant increase in peak strength, and the increase in peak strength is more pronounced for the pillars having lower w/h ratios. In case of noncohesive backfill, the changes in both the peak and residual strengths with up to 92% backfill are negligible while the residual strength constantly increases after reaching the peak strength only when 100%backfill is placed. Based on the modelling results, different backfilling strategies should be considered on a case by case basis depending on the type of backfill available and desired pillar dimension.     

An analytical solution to estimate the settlement of tailings or backfill slurry by considering the sedimentation and consolidation

A common and important task in mining industry is to estimate the settlement or final volume of the tailings or backfill associated with sedimentation and self-weight consolidation. Up to now however, most existing analytical solutions were developed by only considering the settlement induced by consolidation. In this paper, the process of shrinkage tests has been compared with those of sedimentation and consolidation. It was shown that the pore water and particles movement in the sedimentation are very similar to that in the normal shrinkage. The void ratio at the end of sedimentation is thus for the first time considered to be equal to the void ratio at desaturation onset of shrinkage tests. An analytical solution was then proposed to estimate the settlement of tailings or backfill by considering the sedimentation and consolidation. To validate the proposed analytical solution, tailing deposition tests were conducted in two molds to simulate the tailings impoundment and underground mine stope. The required parameters were obtained through shrinkage and consolidation tests. Good agreements were obtained between the measured settlements and those calculated by the proposed solution. The proposed solution can thus be considered as validated and used to evaluate the settlement of tailings or backfill slurry.     

Strategic sill pillar design for reduced hanging wall overbreak in longhole mining

Steeply dipping, vein and tabular orebodies are traditionally extracted with longitudinal retreat mining methods such as Eureka and Avoca in a bottom-up sequence with delayed backfill. To increase productivity, sill pillars in the orebody are used to separate mining zones thus allowing production to take place simultaneously in two or more zones. While such mining methods are productive, they may be accompanied with high volumes of hanging wall overbreak causing significant unplanned ore dilution. In this work, it is shown through a mine design case study of a narrow vein deposit that a sill pillar could also play a significant role in limiting hanging wall overbreak. To demonstrate the role of sill pillar, a novel numerical modelling scheme is proposed to account for progressive stope wall overbreak. A numerical modelling approach of element death and rebirth is developed to allow for the detected stope overbreak to be immediately removed and replaced with backfill material before upper-level stope extraction. It is further shown that the average overbreak volume could be reduced by as much as 33% when the sill pillar is strategically placed in the lower half of a mine plan.     

Analysis of factors and countermeasures of mining subsidence in Kaiyang Phosphorus Mine

1 INTRODUCTION After useful mineral body has been mined and dragged out, mining goaf is formed and country rocks would probably lose original equivalence. When span of the goaf is long enough, even if the roof is hard and intact, the rock around the goaf would move towards the mining openings, and this movement would pass on to the adjoining rock mass until it reaches the surface and ground displacement can be observed. In other words, underground mining may cause ground cracks and surface…     

Random gravel model and particle flow based numerical biaxial test of solid backfll materials

Fully mechanized coal mining with backflling(FMCMB)has become a major solution of‘‘green mining’’.The mechanical properties of backfll materials are key factors of ground control in FMCMB face.To study the strength behaviors of the solid backfll materials,we developed a method of generating random gravel model by using computational geometry algorithms,then coded the generating method into a program with MATLAB software,and implemented several numerical biaxial tests under different confning stresses by using a generated random gravel model and the Particle Flow Code PFC2d.Peak deviatoric stress,post-peak softening,initial contraction and dilation and the relations between them and confning stress can be observed.And the initial elastic modulus of the samples,Poisson’s ratio,frictional angle and cohesion can be derived from the numerical biaxial test results.The results indicate a good feasibility study of mechanical properties of the solid backfll materials by random gravel model and particle flow based numerical biaxial test.     

基于块体元的塑性极限下限法在拱坝坝肩稳定分析中的应用

将块体单元法与极限分析下限法相结合,提出了拱坝坝肩稳定的块体单元极限分析下限法.借助于块体单元法离散计算区域,通过块体系统静力场在结构面上满足Mohr-Coulomb屈服条件、应力边界条件以及在块体单元上的力矢力矩平衡原理,构成求解拱坝坝肩强度储备安全系数下限解的数学规划模型,模型的求解采用内点法.最后研究了一个楔形体算例和青龙拱坝左岸坝肩实例,通过比较块体单元下限法计算结果与刚体极限平衡法计算结果,验证了该方法的可行性.     

NMR-based damage characterisation of backfill material in host rock under dynamic loading

It is not uncommon that backfill material used in underground mining being exposed to repetitive dynamic stresses induced by blasting operations or rockburst events. Understanding the strength and fracture evolution of backfilled stopes is critical to maintain the long-term stope stability and ensure safe mining activities. This paper aims to study the damage evolution of the backfill material and its host rock behaviour under three-dimensional(3D) dynamic loading. Using a true-triaxial testing machine, multiple samples of backfill material enclosed by country rock were fabricated and tested under various dynamic loadings with different true-triaxial confining stress conditions. In addition, the nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR) measurement was conducted on the samples before and after exerting static and dynamic loading to obtain their porosity distribution changes. The experiment results suggested that with the increase of the dynamic loading, the porosity of the backfill sample goes through a two-stage process,which shows a slightly linear decrease and then followed by an exponential increase. The research findings can help understand the damage mechanism and fracture development of backfilled stopes and its host rock in deep underground mines, which are constantly subject to the combination of 3D static confining stress and dynamic loading.     

Mechanisms of support failure and prevention measures under double-layer room mining gobs – A case study: Shigetai coal mine

In the practice of mining shallow buried ultra-close seams, support failure tends to occur during the process of longwall undermining beneath two layers of room mining goaf (TLRMG). In this paper, the factors causing support failure are summarized into geology and mining technology. Combining column lithology and composite beam theory, the key stratum of the rock strata is determined. A finite element numerical simulation is used to analyze the overlying load distribution rule of the main roof for different plane positions of the upper and lower room mining pillars. The tributary area theory (TAT) is adopted to analyze the vertical load distribution of each pillar, and dynamic models of coal pillar instability and main roof fracture are established. Through key block instability analysis, two critical moments are established, of which critical moment A has the greater dynamic load strength. Great economic losses and safety hazards are created by the dynamic load of the fracturing of the main roof. To reduce these negative effects, a method of pulling out supports is developed and two alternative measures for support failure prevention are proposed: reinforcing stope supports in conjunction with reducing mining height, or drilling ground holes to pre-split the main roof. Based on a comprehensive consideration of economic factors and the two categories of support failure causes, the method of reinforcing stope supports while reducing mining height was selected for use on the mining site.     

Development of a spring analogue approach for the study of pillars and shafts

In civil and mining operations that involve ground excavation and support, the loads are distributed between the ground and support depending on their relative stiffness. This paper presents the development of conceptual single-degree-of-freedom models, which are used to derive equations for estimating displacements and stresses for ground-support interaction problems encountered in pillars in room-andpillar mining(natural support system), and liners for circular vertical shafts(artificial support systems).For pillar assessment, mine-pillar interaction curves can be constructed using a double spring analogy.Additionally, the effectiveness of different support systems can be evaluated depending on their effect upon the mine-pillar system. For shaft design, an initial estimation of the required lining strength and thickness can be readily made based on a double ring analogue. For both problems, the results from the proposed approach compare well with those obtained by finite element numerical simulations.     

Quality evaluation of layerlike backfilling and flow pattern of backfill slurry in stope

Stability condition and quality evaluation formula of layerlike backfilling roof,Q≥C,where Q denotes is quality index depending on allowable compressive or tensile strength and integrity of backfilling,and C is the technical index depending on mining method and backfilling technology,were inferred according to simply supported beam theorem.Technical treatment measures for instable backfilling roof,including optimum of appropriate filling materials and dosage for excellent flow property and reduction of backfill cost.It is proved that slope equation of backfill slurry in a stope to be filled is y=hexp[x2/(2σ)2)],where h is height of cone and σ2 is mean square,and that optimum drainage point of backfill slurry can be determined by the equation and sizes of stope.Case study indicates that the results can give a theoretical support for quality evaluation and control of layerlike backfilling.     

Mechanics criterion and factors affecting overburden stability in solid dense filling mining

The effect of controlling strata movement in solid filling mining depends on the filling rate of the goaf.However, the mechanical property of the overburden in the backfill stope and the designed size of the backfill mining workface should also be considered. In this study, we established a main roof strata model with loads in accordance with the theory of key strata to investigate the stability of the overburden in solid dense filling mining. We analyzed the stress distribution law of the main roof strata based on elastic thin plate theory. The results show that the position of the long side midpoint of the main roof strata failed more easily because of tensile yield, indicating that this position is the area where failure is likely to occur more easily. We also deduced the stability mechanics criterion of the main roof strata based on tensile yield criterion. The factors affecting the stability of the overburden in solid dense filling mining were also analyzed, including the thickness and elasticity modulus of the main roof strata, overlying strata loads, advanced distance and length of workface, and elastic foundation coefficient of backfill body.The research achievements can provide an important theoretical basis for determining the designed size of the solid dense filling mining workface.     

An investigation of surface deformation after fully mechanized,solid back fill mining

The surface deformation after fully mechanized back filling mining was analyzed. The surface deformation for different backfill materials was predicted by an equivalent mining height model and numerical simulations. The results suggest that: (1) As the elastic modulus, E, of the backfill material increases the surface subsidence decreases. The rate of subsidence decrease drops after E is larger than 5 GPa; (2) Fully mechanized back fill mining technology can effectively control surface deformation. The resulting surface deformation is within the specification grade I, which means surface maintenance is not needed. A site survey showed that the equivalent mining height model is capable of predicting and analyzing surface deformation and that the model is conservative enough for engineering safety. Finally, the significance of establishing a complete error correction system based on error analysis and correction is discussed.     

Evaluation of the use of sublevel open stoping in the mining of moderately dipping medium-thick orebodies

The flow of blasted ore during mining of moderately dipping medium-thick orebodies is a challenge. Selecting a suitable mining system for such ore bodies is difficult. This paper proposes a diamond layout sublevel open stoping system using fan blastholes with backfilling to mine such orebodies. To evaluate the performance of system the relationships between ore recovery and stope footwall dip angle, footwall surface roughness, drawpoint spacing and production blast ring burden were investigated. An ore recovery data set from 81 laboratory physical model experiments was established from combinations of the listed factors. Various modules in a back propagation neural network structure were compared, and an optimal network structure identified. An ore recovery backpropagation neural network (BPNN) forecast model was developed. Using the model and sensitivity analysis of the factors affecting the proposed open stope mining system, the significance of each factor on ore recovery was studied. The study results were applied to a case study at the Shandong Gold Group Jiaojia Gold Mine. The results showed that the application of a BPNN and sensitivity analysis models for ore recovery prediction in the proposed mining system and field experimental results confirm that the suggested mining method is feasible.     

多孔孔板与楔形节流装置的数值模拟与标定

为了研究工程实际中多孔板和楔形节流装置内部流场的流动特性,并为流出系数的获取提供新的途径,采用计算流体动力学方法对多孔孔板节流装置和楔形节流装置的内部流场进行了数值仿真研究,并将数值模拟得到的流出系数与流量标定实验结果进行对比,来验证数值模拟结果的合理性与精确性．实验结果表明,流出系数的流量标定结果与数值模拟值之差小于4％,对多孔孔板和楔形节流装置工程设计提供了参考．     

基于可靠度理论的下向进路充填体强度确定方法

充填体强度确定是制约胶结充填采矿技术发展的三大充填体力学问题之一．阐述了采用传统方法确定充填体强度的不足，结合下向进路力学分析结果，提出了基于可靠度理论的下向进路充填体强度确定方法和随机参数敏感性分析方法．并结合某矿山现场实际，探讨了下向进路承栽层稳定性可靠概率的合理取值，认为承载层稳定性可靠概率为90％时可以满足现场生产的需要．分别采用蒙特卡洛法、改进的JC法和JC法计算了该矿山废石料充填进路承栽层所需的强度值，分析了各随机参数对承栽层稳定性可靠概率影响的敏感性，探讨了承载层稳定性可靠指标与安全系数之间的关系．所提出的方法对阶段充填采矿法充填体强度确定也具有良好的适用性．     

含柔性垫层的刚性挡土墙土压力计算方法

在刚性挡土墙与填土之间设置柔性垫层能减小作用于挡土墙的土压力,但目前仍缺乏针对设置聚苯乙烯土工泡沫（EPS）柔性垫层的刚性挡土墙土压力计算方法。将EPS柔性垫层的压缩量视为墙后填土的位移量,考虑挡土墙后土拱效应,基于挡土墙土压力-位移的关系曲线,引入迭代法进行收敛计算,得到设置EPS柔性垫层的刚性挡土墙土压力计算方法。该计算方法的优势是可在EPS柔性垫层压缩量未知的情况下求解土压力,即可应用工程设计阶段。建立FLAC3D有限差分数值模型,对推导的理论解进行验证,并对EPS柔性垫层减载效果进行分析。结果表明：基于土压力-位移关系曲线并采用迭代法得出的墙后设置EPS柔性垫层的刚性挡土墙土压力理论解具有较好的合理性。在EPS柔性垫层弹性模量不变的情况下,EPS柔性垫层减小土压力的效果随着EPS柔性垫层厚度的增加而增强;在EPS柔性垫层厚度一定的情况下,随着EPS柔性垫层弹性模量的增加,其减小土压力的效果逐渐减弱。     

Mechanical analysis of roof stability under nonlinear compaction of solid backfill body

Based on the compaction characteristic test and the nonlinear compaction deformation characteristics of backfill material, this paper applies the theory of nonlinear elastic foundation of thin plate to establish a mechanical model of backfill body and roof in solid dense backfill coal mining. This study critically analyses the deflection equation of the roof by the energy method, derives the conditions of roof breakage and combined with concrete engineering practice analyses, determines roof movement regularity and stability in solid dense backfill mining. Analysis of the engineering practice of the 13,120 backfill panel of Pingmei 12# mine shows the theoretical maximum of roof convergence in backfill mining to be415 mm which is in significant agreement with the measured value. During the advancing process of solid backfill mining at the panel, the maximum tensile stress on the roof is less than its tensile strength which does not satisfy the conditions for roof breakage. Drilling results on the roof and ground pressure monitoring show that the integrity of roof is strong, which is consistent with the theoretical calculations described in this study. The results presented in the study provide a basis for further investigation into strata movement theory in solid dense backfill mining.     

考虑平动位移效应的刚性挡土墙土压力理论

针对平动模式下的刚性挡土墙,研究了考虑平动位移效应的非极限状态土压力计算理论.考虑墙体平动位移对墙后填土内摩擦角及墙土接触面上外摩擦角的影响,建立了内外摩擦角与位移之间的关系公式.对平动未达到极限位移的挡土墙,结合位移与摩擦角之间的关系,分析了最不利情况下墙后土楔的受力情况,得到考虑位移效应的非极限状态土压力计算公式.通过比较,发现理论公式计算结果与模型试验结果较吻合.