Short fatigue crack growth behavior in a ferritic-bainitic steel

Short fatigue crack growth behavior was studied in a ferrite-bainite microstructure in C-Mn steel with respect to microstructural variations. Specimens were subjected to cyclic loading at three different stress levels: 559, 626, and 687 MPa. The crack propagation rates varied from 10^-4 to 10^-2 μm/cycle. Crack lengths were measured using a replication technique. The growth rates were systematically decreased at microstructural heterogeneities up to a length of 3 to 4 grain diameters. A two-stage short fatigue crack growth model previously developed by Hussain et al. was modified to predict the crack growth behavior. The calculated values were within 10 pct error of the experimentally determined results. The model was then used to present the effect of grain boundaries on cracks propagating at constant rates. It was shown that the mode of presenting of the fatigue data can help in understanding different practical problems in stage I. These include situations such as block loading and short-duration stress spikes in nonpropagating crack regimes.     

Microstructure property relationships and hydrogen effects in a particulate-reinforced aluminum composite

The relationship between the composite microstructure and tensile behavior of a 2124-SiC_P powder-formed composite was the subject of the present investigation. In particular, emphasis was placed on the role of the composite microstructure in determining the operative fracture processes. The susceptibility of the composite to hydrogen embrittlement was examined using straining electrode tests which involved simultaneous specimen straining and cathodic hydrogen charging. The behavior of the composite was compared to that reported for an unreinforced 2124 alloy. C.P. YOU, formerly Postdoctoral Associate, Carnegie Mellon University, CA. M. DOLLAR, formerly with Carnegie Mellon University. I.M. BERNSTEIN, formerly with Carnegie Mellon University 2450.     

温度与应力比对6061铝合金疲劳裂纹扩展行为的影响

为了研究温度与应力比对航空铝合金疲劳裂纹扩展行为的影响,利用电液伺服疲劳试验机对6061铝合金材料开展了不同温度(室温、-70、150 ℃)、应力比(0.1、0.5)条件下的疲劳裂纹扩展速率试验,获得不同条件下的疲劳裂纹扩展速率曲线,揭示温度与应力比对疲劳裂纹扩展的影响规律。结果表明,在相同应力比下,室温与高温150 ℃下的疲劳裂纹扩展速率曲线(da/dN-ΔK)基本一致,低温-70 ℃下的疲劳门槛值与疲劳裂纹扩展速率明显提高,这表明低温环境下6061铝合金材料具有较高的抗疲劳裂纹扩展性能;在相同温度下,随着应力比的增大,疲劳门槛值降低,疲劳裂纹扩展速率升高。讨论了温度与应力比对疲劳裂纹扩展行为影响的可能原因。     

Corrosive wear of SiC Whisker-and particulate-reinforced 6061 aluminum alloy composites

Wear tests on SiC whisker- and SiC particulate-reinforced 6061-T6 aluminum matrix composites (SiCw/Al and SiCp/Al), fabricated using a high pressure infiltration method, were performed in laboratory air, ion-exchanged water and a 3 pct NaCl aqueous solution using a block-on-ring type apparatus. The effects of environment, applied load, and rotational (sliding) speed on the wear prop-erties against a sintered alumina block were evaluated. Electrochemical measurements in ion-ex-changed water and a 3 pct NaCl aqueous solution were also made under the same conditions as the wear tests. A comparison was made with the properties of the matrix aluminum alloy 6061-T6. The SiC-reinforced composites exhibited better wear resistance compared with the monolithic 6061 Al alloy even in a 3 pct NaCl aqueous solution. Increase in the wear resistance depended on the shape, size, and volume fraction of the SiC reinforcement. Good correlation was obtained between corrosion resistance and corrosion wear. The ratios of wear volume due to the corrosive effect to noncorrosive wear were 23 to 83 pct, depending on the wear conditions.     

Holographic detection of fatigue-induced surface deformation and crack growth in a high-strength aluminum alloy

Changes in optical correlation intensity (I)_c are observed during fatigue cycling of 2024-T3 aluminum alloy. TheI _c measurements are made by transmitting light scattered from the specimen surface through a holographic filter containing information about the surface topography at an earlier time. Topographic changes such as slip band development, microcracking, and crack propagation are observed and recordedin situ during fatigue cycling of individual specimens and cause corresponding changes in correlation intensity. A three-stage curve log (I)_c vs number of fatigue cycles is observed for both unnotched and notched specimens. The overall shape of the curve is not affected by the applied stress levels in constant amplitude tests. Thein situ metallographic observations confirm that region A of the correlation intensity curve corresponds to progressive roughening of the specimen surface caused by slip during the early part of the fatigue life, together with a rapid increase in the number of microcracks of the order of a few micrometers in length. Few metallographic changes are observed during region B of the curve, where the correlation intensity remains relatively constant. The accelerating loss of correlation intensity in region C of the curve arises from the elastic and plastic displacements which occur as a crack or cracks grow beyond about 10 μm in length. The metallographic observations also show that for both notched and unnotched specimens, the correlation intensity readings in region C are sensitive to factors such as crack branching, crack-tip plasticity, and changes in crack growth direction as well as to the overall increase in crack length. The total loss of correlation intensity from the beginning of fatigue cycling to the development of a crack about 800 μm in length can be more than eight orders of magnitude at the present sensitivity of our experiments. The optical correlation technique is an extremely sensitive method of detecting remotely, in air, fatigue damage, and the propagation of fatigue cracks from ten to several hundred micrometers in length. The correlation intensity curve provides an indication of developing fatigue damage and impending fatigue failure in individual specimens, and detects the onset of crack propagation with no prior knowledge of the presence or precise location of particular flaws or cracks.     

Micromechanics and fatigue crack growth in an alumina-fiber-reinforced magnesium alloy composite

A study has been made of fatigue crack growth through the magnesium alloy ZE41A and a composite of this alloy reinforced with alumina fibers. Crack growth rates were measured and failure mechanisms characterized for specimens with fibers parallel to the loading axis and for two off-axis orientations. Crack opening displacements and matrix and fiber strains in the vicinity of the crack tip were measured using the stereomaging technique. Crack growth rates through the composite were retarded by the fibers. For the composite with fibers at 22.5 deg to the loading axis, fibers were found to fracture in the composite at the same stress as measured for the fibers alone. Fiber fracture was the dominant growth-controlling mechanism for fibers oriented on and 22.5 deg to the loading axis, and little fiber pullout was observed. However, for crack growth through material with fibers oriented at 45 deg to the loading axis, crack growth was found to exist principally through the interface. Driving forces for cracks in interfaces were determined to be smaller than the applied δK. It was found that approximate fatigue crack growth rates through the composites could be predicted from those through the matrix by adjusting the tensile modulus. The upper and lower bounds of fatigue crack growth rate were also computed for the composite using a micromechanics-based model that incorporated observed failure mechanisms. A. McMINN, formerly with Southwest Research Institute, is with Failure Analysis Associates, Washington, D.C.     

Dry sliding wear of a Ti50Ni25Cu25 particulate-reinforced aluminum matrix composite

The objective of this article is to characterize the sliding wear behavior of a 30 vol pct Ti₅₀Ni₂₅Cu₂₅ particulate-reinforced aluminum matrix composite under dry conditions. The transformation temperatures of Ti₅₀Ni₂₅Cu₂₅ particles were measured before and after the compounding procedure by the differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) method. The wear tests were carried out on a pin-on-disc machine. A 10 vol pct SiC particulate-reinforced composite and pure aluminum were chosen as the comparison specimens. The results indicate that Al-30 vol pct Ti₅₀Ni₂₅Cu₂₅ composites exhibit higher wear resistance than their unreinforced matrices and are comparable with Al-10 vol pct SiC composites in this experiment. A self-adaptive mechanism that contributes to the wear resistance of an Al-30 vol pct Ti₅₀Ni₂₅Cu₂₅ composite is proposed. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy diffraction spectrum (EDS) examinations were carried out to investigate the wear mechanism and interface reactions. The results indicate that the interfacial reaction is a predominant factor in determining the wear behavior of the Ti₅₀Ni₂₅Cu₂₅/Al composite.     

Fracture mechanics and surface chemistry studies of fatigue crack growth in an aluminum alloy

Fracture mechanics and surface chemistry studies were carried out to develop further understanding of the influence of water vapor on fatigue crack growth in aluminum alloys. The room temperature fatigue crack growth response was determined for 2219-T851 aluminum alloy exposed to water vapor at pressures from 1 to 30 Pa over a range of stress intensity factors (K). Data were also obtained in vacuum (at < 0.50 μPa), and dehumidified argon. The test results showed that, at a frequency of 5 Hz, the rate of crack growth is essentially unaffected by water vapor until a threshold pressure is reached. Above this threshold, the rates increased, reaching a maximum within one order of magnitude increase in vapor pressure. This maximum crack growth rate is equal to that obtained in air (40 to 60 pct relative humidity), distilled water and 3.5 pct NaCl solution on the same material. Parallel studies of the reactions of water vapor with fresh alloy surfaces (produced either byin situ impact fracture or by ion etching) were made by Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The extent of surface reaction was monitored by changes in the oxygen AES and XPS signals. Correlation between the fatigue crack growth response and the surface reaction kinetics has been made, and is consistent with a transport-limited model for crack growth. The results also suggest that enhancement of fatigue crack growth by water vapor in the aluminum alloys occurs through a “hydrogen embrittle ment” mechanism.     

Fatigue crack growth and fracture toughness behavior of an Al-Li-Cu alloy

Slip behavior, fracture toughness, and fatigue thresholds of a high purity Al-Li-Cu alloy with Zr as a dispersoid forming element have been studied as a function of aging time. The fracture toughness variation with aging time has been related to the changes in slip planarity,i.e., slip band spacing and width. Although the current alloy exhibits planar slip for all aging conditions examined, the crack initiation toughness,Klc, compares favorably with those of 2XXX and 7XXX aluminum alloys. Near threshold fatigue crack growth results in air and vacuum suggest that irregularities in the crack profile and the fracture surfaces and slip reversibility are some of the major contributing factors to the crack growth resistance of this alloy.     

Corrosion fatigue crack growth behavior of a squeeze-cast Al-Si-Mg-Cu alloy with different precrack histories

Fatigue experiments have been performed on a squeeze-cast Al-Si-Mg-Cu alloy as a function of precrack history. The precracked conditions were that the compact tension specimen was precracked with a relatively long through-thickness crack (about 6 mm) in air, in aqueous 3 pct NaCl solution, and in air followed by hydrogen precharging. It was found that a relatively long through-thickness crack can grow more rapidly than would be predicted by a traditional ΔK involving three stages under either a corrosion fatigue test after precracking in air or a hydrogen precharging experiment followed by fatigue testing in air. The experimental evidence confirms that a hydrogen-assisted damage mechanism is mainly responsible for the rapid growth phenomenon of a relatively long crack in a corrosive environment compared to the result of fatigue testing in air after hydrogen precharging. The amount of hydrogen production in chemical-microstructure interaction processes in a corrosion fatigue experiment and the effectiveness of hydrogen transport to the region ahead of the crack tip determine the degree of hydrogen-assisted fatigue crack growth, which is controlled by the microstructure of the alloy and the chemical attack on a sharp and fresh crack tip.     

Creep crack growth in alloy 718

Subcritical crack growth behavior in Alloy 718 was studied under creep conditions at 538, 649, and 760°C (1000, 1200, 1400°F) and crack growth rates were correlated using both linear and nonlinear elastic fracture mechanics. The results show that for a given stress intensity value crack growth rate increases significantly with increase in temperature from 538 to 649°C but either decreases or increases slightly with further increase in temperature to 760°C. On the basis of these results it is concluded that creep crack growth results from a balance of two competing processes, diffusion of point defects which contributes to crack growth, and creep deformation process that causes retardation of crack growth and even its arrest. Significance of these concepts in relation to enhancing the resistance of a given material to creep crack growth is discussed in detail.     

Slow crystallographic fatigue crack growth in a nickel-base alloy

Fatigue crack propagation rates at very low cyclic stress intensity levels (1 to 3 MNm^-372) have been measured in cube-oriented, planar slip nickel-base superalloy monocrystals using a high frequency (20 kHz) resonant fatigue testing technique. It is found that crack propagation is entirely along the crystallographic slip planes and the crack growth rate does not drop off into a threshold behavior but follows a power law with a power law exponent close to 4, which is similar to the functional dependency observed at higher cyclic stress intensity levels in similar superalloys. The observed behaviors are discussed with respect to a new theory on threshold and the effects of strong crystallographic constraints on crack propagation behavior.     

Thermomechanical behavior of TiNi shape memory alloy fiber reinforced 6061 aluminum matrix composite

The processing and thermomechanical behaviors of TiNi shape memory alloy (SMA) fiber-reinforced 6061 Al matrix smart composites are investigated experimentally and analytically. Optimum processing conditions of hot pressing temperature and pressure are identified. Composite yield stresses are observed to increase with an increase in the volume fraction of TiNi fiber and prestrain given to the composites. An analytical model for thermomechanical behavior of the composites is developed by utilizing an exponential type of SMA constitutive model. The model predicts an increase in the composite yield stress with an increase in prestrain. It is found that the key parameters affecting the composite yield stress are the fiber volume fraction, prestrain, and matrix heat treatment. The predictions are in a reasonably good agreement with the experimental results.     

Thermomechanical behavior of TiNi shape memory alloy fiber reinforced 6061 aluminum matrix composite

The processing and thermomechanical behaviors of TiNi shape memory alloy (SMA) fiber-reinforced 6061 Al matrix smart composites are investigated experimentally and analytically. Optimum processing conditions of hot pressing temperature and pressure are identified. Composite yield stresses are observed to increase with an increase in the volume fraction of TiNi fiber and prestrain given to the composites. An analytical model for thermomechanical behavior of the composites is developed by utilizing an exponential type of SMA constitutive model. The model predicts an increase in the composite yield stress with an increase in prestrain. It is found that the key parameters affecting the composite yield stress are the fiber volume fraction, prestrain, and matrix heat treatment. The predictions are in a reasonably good agreement with the experimental results.     

Fatigue crack growth behavior of an oxide dispersion strengthened MA 956 alloy

Fatigue crack growth behavior of oxide dispersion strengthened ferritic MA 956 alloy was studied at 25 °C and 1000 °C in air at 0.17 Hz. The growth rates were analyzed using the linear elastic parameter ΔK and the elastic-plastic parameter ΔJ. Crack growth, although transgranular at both temperatures, increased by nearly three orders of magnitude with increase in temperature from 25 to 1000 °C. The growth rates were essentially the same in terms of either ΔK or ΔJ parameters indicating that plasticity effects are small even at 1000 °C. Detailed fractographic analysis revealed the presence of ductile striations in the ΔK range of 25 to 40 MPa√m at 25 °C and in a much narrower range at 1000 °C. Presence of voids could be detected at 1000 °C. Using the measured load-displacement hysteresis energies for a unit increment in crack length, crack growth rates were calculated using cumulative damage models and were compared with the experimental data. At 1000 °C the predicted and the experimental values agree within a factor of two and it is concluded that the growth occurs essentially by a damage accumulation process except in a narrow range of ΔK where the plastic blunting process is superimposed, resulting in ductile striations that were observed. At 25 °C the predicted and the experimental value reasonably agree for ΔK values greater than 40 MPa√m, and below this value the two diverge with predicted values being much lower. This divergence is related to occurrence of the plastic blunting process in this ΔK range as confirmed by fractographic evidence. The cumulative damage process at 1000 °C was related to the environmentally assisted void formation at dispersoid-matrix interfaces. At 25 °C the damage is related to the formation of microcracks ahead of the crack tip. These results and interrelation between alloy microstructure and fatigue fracture path are discussed in detail.     

Short range order structure in a copper 16 atomic percent aluminum alloy

A complete set of short range order and displacement parameters have been calculated from a restricted set of diffuse X-ray measurements on a copper-aluminum alloy using a multiple regression analysis. A computer simulation based on a discrete model which matched the experimental parameters indicated that the short range order structure is based upon ordered Cu₃Au which is very heavily faulted. The results show that detailed comparisons between the experimental parameters and the simulation can be used to detect deficiencies in either the model or the data.