Responding to the ‘Wicked Problem’ of Water Insecurity

This paper highlights key trends and projections in water scarcity, reviews the ways that water security and water scarcity are most commonly understood, and explores possible responses. Based on a selected review of the literature, an explanation is provided of ways that water pricing can be applied to respond to water insecurity from both a demand and supply perspective. ‘Hard’ and also ‘soft’ approaches that include stakeholder, policy and decision processes are briefly reviewed as ways to promote water security. Collectively, the paper provides a guide about how decision makers might efficiently and equitably respond to the ‘wicked problem’ of water insecurity.     

An Evaluation of China’s Water Footprint

The water footprint is an indicator of freshwater consumption that looks not only at direct water consumption of a consumer or producer, also at the indirect water consumption. The water footprint can be regarded as a comprehensive indicator of freshwater resources appropriation, next to the traditional and restricted measure of water withdrawal. Based on the concept and calculating method of water footprint, this paper estimates the water footprint of China in 2007. The result shows that the total water footprint of China is 856.34 × 10⁹ m³ and the per capita water footprint is 648.11 m³/year. The spatial difference of per capita water footprint is obvious among all provinces of China. Generally, the more developed cities, the southern and coastal provinces have a higher per capita water footprint, lower water footprint intensity and higher efficiency of water consumption, while the North West China has lower water utilization efficiency. China is one of the thirteen water scarce countries in the world and spatial distribution of water resources is non-uniform. In addition to the virtual water trade, government should apply advanced technology and best available management practices, improve the efficiency of water use, reduce virtual water content per unit product, and continue nation-wide readjustment of industrial structure to guarantee an efficient use of limited water resources.     

Potential Significance of the EU Water Framework Directive to China

The European Union Water Framework Directive (EU WFD) is a unique piece of legislation, which may be of great significance to on-going reforms of the water sector in China. First and foremost it unites 27 European member states behind a common goal, which is “to achieve good chemical and ecological status” of all water bodies across the EU. Other significant characteristics of the EU WFD are that (1) it sets a clear timeframe with a number of time-bound actions for member states to achieve the goal, but leaves it to member states to achieve this goal in a decentralised process, which makes allowance for the different socio-economic conditions, (2) it defines the river basin as the management unit for water thus departing with the traditional fragmented management by administrative units and it appoints a single competent authority for water management within each river basin, thus facilitating resolution of sector conflicts, (3) it requires a financial and economic analysis of the costs of implementing the EU WFD to enable decision makers to assess whether the required improvements are affordable to government and to the population within the river basin, and (4) it requires a structured process for information and consultation with stakeholders and the public throughout the planning and implementation process.     

Scientists’ Warning to Humanity: Rapid degradation of the world’s large lakes

Large lakes of the world are habitats for diverse species, including endemic taxa, and are valuable resources that provide humanity with many ecosystem services. They are also sentinels of global and local change, and recent studies in limnology and paleolimnology have demonstrated disturbing evidence of their collective degradation in terms of depletion of resources (water and food), rapid warming and loss of ice, destruction of habitats and ecosystems, loss of species, and accelerating pollution. Large lakes are particularly exposed to anthropogenic and climatic stressors. The Second Warning to Humanity provides a framework to assess the dangers now threatening the world’s large lake ecosystems and to evaluate pathways of sustainable development that are more respectful of their ongoing provision of services. Here we review current and emerging threats to the large lakes of the world, including iconic examples of lake management failures and successes, from which we identify priorities and approaches for future conservation efforts. The review underscores the extent of lake resource degradation, which is a result of cumulative perturbation through time by long-term human impacts combined with other emerging stressors. Decades of degradation of large lakes have resulted in major challenges for restoration and management and a legacy of ecological and economic costs for future generations. Large lakes will require more intense conservation efforts in a warmer, increasingly populated world to achieve sustainable, high-quality waters. This Warning to Humanity is also an opportunity to highlight the value of a long-term lake observatory network to monitor and report on environmental changes in large lake ecosystems.     

Bankruptcy to Surplus: Sharing Transboundary River Basin’s Water under Scarcity

In this article a three-stage framework is proposed for allocating water and welfare in transboundary river basins under water scarcity. The proposed allocation framework combines the bargaining theory with resource allocation and bankruptcy games. The water bankrupt Euphrates River was taken as a case study to demonstrate the applicability of the allocation framework. The results showed that the total monetary welfare that can be generated by reallocating the water in order of decreasing water productivity value of each riparian country is greater by 43.43% of total monetary warfare that can be made if each country were to utilize the water allocated to it independently. The proposed allocation framework rewarded Turkey, Syria and Iraq with welfare assignments which are 41.5%, 42.1% and 57.45% greater than what they could have achieved by unilaterally utilizing the water allocated to them. Generally, the proposed water allocation, water reallocation and welfare assignment framework provide some insights for allocating transboundary water in a way which is efficient, fair and sustainable.     

Rethinking the Concepts of Virtual Water and Water Footprint in Relation to the Production–Consumption Binomial and the Water–Energy Nexus

In the field of Ecological Economics, the need of using physical indicators to analyse economic processes, at the same time they serve as tools in decision making, has been lately highlighted. Virtual Water (VW) and Water Footprint (WF) are two useful indicators in achieving this objective, the first one from the perspective of production, the second one from that of consumption. This difference between them is interesting inasmuch as it allows to identify the subjects who are responsible for water consumption, whether producers or consumers, and proves both indicators’ potential when designing water management policies. In this work, we consider a hypothesis according to which there is a clear difference between the two concepts—Virtual Water and Water Footprint—and this difference, although evident in their respective conceptualizations, is not reflected in their estimations and applications. This is true to the point that the two concepts are often used as synonyms, thus wasting the enormous potential associated to their difference. Starting from this hypothesis, our objective is, first of all, to highlight this evident but ignored difference between VW and WF through a deep and thorough literature review of the conceptual definitions and contributions, the methodologies developed and the applications made regarding the two concepts. Second, we intend to make a conceptual and methodological proposition aimed at underlining the differences already mentioned and to identify responsibilities in water consumption. We do it by broadening the context of analysis and by integrating the production–consumption binomial and water–energy nexus.     

Stakeholders’ Responses to the Use of Innovative Water Trading Systems in East Anglia,England

It is widely recognised that the current abstraction licensing system in England needs to be reformed to meet the challenges of future environmental flow requirements, likely increases in water demands and climate change. The UK Government has committed to the reform of the abstraction regime in England and work is underway, including the Welsh Government, to assess the impacts of different reform options, working closely with stakeholders. International experience reveals that the complexity of water management at a national level lends itself to common principles but ultimately that local solutions are required at a catchment-level to manage such challenges. Historically the number of abstraction licences traded in England is negligible. In the future the trading of abstraction licences and derivative water rights, for example water quotas, could play a key role in improving water use efficiency. This paper describes research that was carried out to add to this evidence base in the Upper Ouse and Bedford Ouse catchment in East Anglia with a number of stakeholders to document their response to two innovative water trading systems which have been termed “improved pair-wise” trading and the “common pool” approach. Improved pair-wise trading would allow for a hierarchy of types of short-term abstraction licence trades. Some trades between specific points in a catchment might be pre-approved if the risks to the environment were deemed acceptable. The common pool approach is based on the trading of water quotas, using “smart market” methods, which enable economic optimisation of market outcomes based on abstractors’ bids subject to realistic hydrological constraints. This method would allow all abstractors to bid into a common pool on a weekly basis to obtain their water. Both methods were demonstrated via two workshops to investigate the barriers and facilitators to water trading in practice. Participants were cautiously interested in the benefits offered by both methods, especially the ability to trade water at short notice. However, for these trading methods to play a key role in the reform of abstraction licensing the abstractors must have sufficient confidence that the underlying methods are sufficiently equitable, reliable and accurate.     

Water Resources Allocation Considering the Water Use Flexible Limit to Water Shortage—A Case Study in the Yellow River Basin of China

Water resources allocation in a river basin is customarily determined based on long-term mean water availability. However, inter-annual variability of water resources caused by climate fluctuation should also be considered in order to keep an effective and flexible allocation policy. This paper analyzes the historical evolution of the water resources allocation system in the Yellow River basin of China. Based on the concept of water use flexible limit to water shortage and actual water use data from 1988–2006, a set of flexible limits to water shortage adapted to the Yellow River basin has been proposed. This includes total water use flexible limit to water shortage for all provinces, which is approximately 70%; and the different water use flexible limits to water shortage for each social sector, which are approximately 90% for agriculture, 85% for domestic use, and 50% for other industries. It offers a simple, yet effective, method for future water resources allocation in the Yellow River basin to achieve the optimal use of water resources. It likewise provides a beneficial reference for water resources management in the water deficient regions of China.     

Quantifying the Human Induced Water Level Decline of China’s Largest Freshwater Lake from the Changing Underlying Surface in the Lake Region

In recent years, dramatic decline in China’s largest freshwater lake, Poyang Lake, has raised wide concerns about water supply and ecological crises in the middle–lower Yangtze River reaches. To assist in resolving the debates regarding the low water regime of the lake, the current study quantitatively assessed the enhanced water level decline from the changing underlying surface in the Poyang Lake region. It is the first time that the magnitude, temporal–spatial difference, trend development and background mechanism of lake water level variation and its causes are studied comprehensively. The results revealed that the changing underlying surface in the lake region has caused an average decline of annual water level of 0.26 m ~ 0.75 m across the lake during 2000–2014, which shows great seasonal and spatial differences. The enlarged outflow cross–section due to extensive sand mining was the major reason for the effect on water level decline in the northern lake. While, increased water surface gradient should be attributed to water level decline in the southern lake. The long–term increasing trend of annual lake water level decline reflects the cumulative effects of lake bottom topography change caused by the continuous south movement of sand mining activities.     

Relative Effects of Water Temperature and Water Chemistry on the Fish of the Thames Tideway

1 IntroductionThe Tidal Thames is a well mixed estuary stretching some140 km from Teddington to the North Sea , which provideshabitats for both resident and migrant fish species . With tidalwater enteringfromthe ocean and fresh water flowingfromtheland ,t…     

Promoting and assessing water governance at subnational level: the experience of Brazil’s National Water Management Pact

Relying on previous experiences of goal-oriented initiatives, an inclusive method for classifying and evaluating subnational water management systems has been implemented nationwide to promote the effective participation of social actors in the establishment of water governance goals. Nowadays, the methodology has been fully adopted by all Brazilian subnational federative entities – 26 states and the Federal District – and, in most cases, it has been used as an instrument for orienting state action. This article describes this methodological approach in the light of Brazil’s legal and institutional framework for water resources management.     

Managing Water Resources Under Conditions of Scarcity: On Consumers’ Willingness to Pay for Improving Water Supply Infrastructure

Conservation and efficient management of water resources is an essential ingredient for achieving sustainable development. River basins in Southern Europe are suffering from high water stress, while leakages in some areas far surpass recommended levels. This study uses the contingent valuation method in order to assess willingness to pay (WTP) by consumers in the Guadalquivir River basin in Spain for improving urban water supply infrastructure and reducing leakages. On average, individuals would be willing to pay an extra charge on their water bill ranging from €8.23 to €9.65. In addition to the expected positive effect of income on WTP, respondents with negative perceptions of their drinking water quality as well as those most affected by the economic crisis have a lower WTP. Conversely, WTP is higher for men and respondents showing greater commitment to the environment. These results provide policymakers with information that might help them to improve water-pricing policies in a context of severe water scarcity, especially considering the principle of cost recovery introduced by the EU Water Framework Directive in pricing water services.     

Water Managers’ Boundary Judgments and Adaptive Water Governance. An Analysis of the Dutch Haringvliet Sluices Case

In this paper, we explore how managing actors’ boundary judgments influence the adaptability of water governance. We approach this question by examining the relationship between the way water managers frame, and act in, complex water issues on the one hand and develop adaptive water governance strategies on the other. We define four categories of boundary judgments made by water managers in order to deal with the complexities in water governance issues. An in-depth case study analysis of an attempt to adjust the management of the water regime in the south-west Delta of the Netherlands is provided in order to reconstruct the water managers’ boundary judgments and their impact upon governance strategies used. We found that, most of the time, the water managers involved predominantly made tight boundary judgments. These tight boundary judgments seemed to hamper the mutual learning process among a variety of stakeholders that is needed to realize adaptive water governance. We argue that wide boundary judgments enhance the chance of realizing adaptive practices and build upon exploration, learning, and connection.     

Citizens’ Perceptions on Water Conservation Policies and the Role of Social Capital

Planning and implementing environmental policies for the sustainable management of water resources is a challenging task. In order to improve the effectiveness of these policies it is essential to explore their social implications. The present article aims to investigate environmental policies focusing on domestic water conservation and their interconnection with social capital elements. In particular, by means of an empirical study conducted in an insular community of Greece, citizens’ perceptions are explored concerning the restrictions imposed from different environmental policy instruments for water consumption and their perceived level of effectiveness. Furthermore, the influence of social capital parameters on these perceptions is investigated. Aggregated indicators of social capital are estimated with Confirmatory Factor Analysis measuring social and institutional trust, participation in social networks and compliance with social norms. Through the results of ordinal regression models it is evident that significant connections exist between elements of social capital and perceptions of citizens towards water consumption policies.     

PCJ River Basins’ Water Availability Caused by Water Diversion Scenarios to Supply Metropolitan Areas of São Paulo

A dynamic systems simulation model of water resources was developed as a tool to help analyze alternatives to water resources management for the Piracicaba, Capivari and Jundiaí River Water Basins (RB-PCJ), and used to run six 50-year simulations from 2004 to 2054. The model estimates water supply and demand, as well as contamination load by several consumers. Six runs were performed using a constant mean precipitation value, changing water supply and demand and different volumes diverted from RB-PCJ to RB-Alto Tietê. For the Business as Usual scenario, the Sustainability Index went from 0.44 in 2004 to 0.20 by 2054. The Water Sustainability Index changed from 74% in 2004 to 131% by 2054. The Falkenmark Index changed from 1,403 m³ person^− 1 year^− 1 in 2004 to 734 m³ person^− 1 year^− 1 by 2054. We concluded that sanitation is one of the major problems for the PCJ River Basins.     

The Compensation Mechanism and Water Quality Impacts of Agriculture-Urban Water Transfers: A Case Study in China’s Chaobai Watershed

Water transfer from agriculture to urban uses will likely become increasingly common worldwide. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of converting paddy rice to dry land crops (PPRDC) on local farmers’ income in China’s Chaobai watershed and to analyze the responses of surface water quality to the change in cropping system. An on-site investigation of 485 households and water quality data from 1999 to 2008 are presented in this study. The cost of cultivation as a percentage of the total revenue was 22.3 % for rice and 30.1 % for corn, and the calculated compensation level (CCOM) should be 6172.3 Yuan?ha^?1. PPRDC provided farms with stable income without regard to drought and flood: thus, farmers responded positively to PPRDC, and 76.7 % of farmers expected to continue PPRDC. Inflow water quality was improved in terms of total nitrogen (TN) and nitrate (NO₃–N) because of the reduction in fertilizer and pesticides after PPRDC, but there was no significant change in total phosphorus (TP). PPRDC not only reallocates water resource to different users but also improves water quality through crop adjustment. A dynamic compensation mechanism based on changing crop price is required for the future water transfer project.