Criteria for piloted ignition of combustible solids

The onset of piloted ignition (flash point) of combustible polymers is predicted by a gas phase combustion energy density of 1.9 MJ/m³ that describes the lower flammability limit of fuel vapor-air mixtures. The mass flux (1 g/m² s) and (virtual) heat release rate (24 kW/m²) of the solid at incipient ignition derived from this observation are in general agreement with experimental data for piloted ignition of plastics. Sustained ignition marks the transition from lower-limit to stoichiometric burning and the critical heat release rate increases proportionally to 66 kW/m². A critical heat release rate, unique among ignition criteria, is independent of material composition because of the implicit coupling between the gas and condensed phase processes.     

Autoignition of solid combustibles subjected to a uniform incident heat flux: The effect of distance from the radiation source

The ignitability of solid combustibles by a radiation source has been investigated experimentally as a function of distance between the solid and the source, for heating with a uniform incident heat flux. Unlike piloted ignition, the critical incident heat flux for autoignition increases with the increase of radiant distance, which is a result that has not been reported before. It is found that the generation rate of combustible pyrolysis volatiles is a necessary but not sufficient condition for autoignition. By two dimensionless parameters, it is clearly indicated that the occurrence of autoignition needs both sufficient gas-phase temperature and sufficient concentration of combustible pyrolysis volatiles simultaneously, especially for the larger radiant heating distance condition which is also closer to realistic fire conditions.     

The combined effect of pressure and oxygen concentration on piloted ignition of a solid combustible

There are a number of situations when fires may occur at low pressures and oxygen concentrations that are different than standard atmospheric conditions, such as in buildings at high elevation, airplanes, and spacecraft. The flammability of materials may be affected by these environmental conditions. Since ignition delay is a measure of material flammability and directly influences whether a fire will occur, experiments were conducted to assess the variation of the ignition delay of PMMA in sub-atmospheric pressures and elevated oxygen concentrations. Three sets of experiments were performed at different pressures and in air, in an atmosphere having 30% oxygen/70% nitrogen by volume, and in a “normoxic” atmosphere (constant oxygen partial pressure). It was observed that as the pressure is reduced, the ignition time decreased, reached a minimum, and then increased until ignition did not occur. Several mechanisms were considered to explain the “U-shaped” dependence of ignition time on pressure, and three regimes were identified each having a different controlling mechanism: the transport regime where the ignition delay is controlled by changes in convection heat losses and critical mass flux for ignition; the chemical kinetic regime where the ignition delay is controlled by gas-phase chemical kinetics; and an overlap region where both the transport and chemistry effects are seen. The results provide further insight about the effect of the environmental conditions on the flammability of materials, and guidance about fire safety in low pressure environments.     

喷油提前角对柴油机燃烧特性的影响

为了研究柴油机在不同喷油提前角下的燃烧特性,采用三维流体数值分析软件AVLFIRE建立了某型柴油机燃烧计算模型.在不同喷油提前角下,对燃烧滞燃期、油气混合程度、温度、燃空当量比、放热率和压力进行分析,得出:随着喷油提前角的增大,滞燃期延长,着火时刻形成的可燃混合气增多,缸内最高燃烧压力和最高温度也随之升高同时放热规律相...     

Characteristics and conditions for ignition of bio-coal mixtures based on coal and forest combustible material

The results of the experimental studies of the ignition process of a pulverized fuel mixture based on coal and biomass — forest combustible material (FCM) have been given. As the second component of the fuel the wastes of various deciduous or coniferous species of trees have been used.The experiments have been carried out on the equipment that provides a fairly low level of error when registering the main characteristics (ignition delay time of the fuel particles _tign, ambient temperature T_g) of heat and mass transfer processes occurring together during ignition of bio-coal fuel during thermal preparation. It has been established that the addition of biomass to coal leads to a significant reduction (up to 30%) of the entire ignition period of the fuel mixture. The video recording of the ignition processes has allowed to identify the main stages of thermal preparation and ignition of the bio-coal fuel particles. It has been established that the particles of biomass (leaf or fir needles) ignite faster than coal.A mathematical model has been developed based on the results of a detailed analysis of the videograms of the ignition process of the bio-coal mixtures describing the joint flow of the main processes of heat and mass transfer under conditions of the intense phase and thermochemical transformations. A numerical simulation of the ignition process has been carried out and the ignition delay times have been established. A comparative analysis of the theoretical and experimental values of t_ign has shown their good conformance.     

Hot-wire ignition of ethanol–oxygen hydrothermal flames

The forced ignition experiments conducted in a novel high pressure hydrothermal spallation drilling pilot plant with a Ni/Cr-60/15 coiled wire are presented here. A water–ethanol mixture is used as fuel and gaseous oxygen as oxidation agent. The ignition characteristics of the combustible mixture are analyzed at 260 bar and for temperatures crossing its pseudo-critical point. The influence of the bulk temperature, the fuel composition and the flow conditions on the forced ignition is shown.     

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The lowest surface temperature possible for the existance of spray evaporative cooling is determined experimentally to be a linear function of the impinging spray mass flux. A conduction-controlled analytical model of droplet evaporation gives fairly good agreement with experimental measurements at atmospheric pressure. At reduced pressures droplet evaporation rates are decreased significantly such that an optimum operating pressure exists for each desired surface heat flux. The initiation of the ‘Leidenfrost state’ provides the upper surface temperature bound for spray evaporative cooling.     

大豆生物柴油低温燃烧特性研究

对纯大豆生物柴油(B100)、普通柴油(B0)及其混合燃料(B20和B50)的低温燃烧特性在定容燃烧室中进行了试验研究。对各燃油在800 K环境温度下的燃烧压力、放热率、贯穿距离和碳烟量特性进行了测量。试验结果表明:随着燃油内生物柴油量的增加,缸内最高燃烧压力有所下降,着火延迟时间变短。燃油贯穿距离随着燃油内生物柴油量的增加而变长,但B50和B100的贯穿距离没有明显差别。低温燃烧时碳烟量明显降低,且燃油燃烧过程中的最大碳烟量随着燃油中生物柴油量的增加而降低。     

二甲基醚（DME）燃烧特性研究

作者在定容燃烧弹上用火焰直接成像法研究二甲基醚 (DME)燃烧过程 ,研究了 DME的滞燃期和火焰传播特性以及不同环境温度和压力对燃烧过程的影响。研究结果表明 ,DME的滞燃期比柴油短 ,燃烧室内的温度和压力升高时 ,滞燃期缩短 ;DME的着火位置靠近喷嘴一侧 ,柴油与 DME的体积相同时 ,DME的燃烧持续期比柴油短 ;DME的燃烧火焰亮度比柴油小 ,表明 DME的燃烧温度比柴油低。燃烧后期 ,燃用 DME时 ,喷嘴有明显的泄漏现象。此外 ,作者在单缸直喷式柴油机上进行了燃用 DME的燃烧特性试验研究 ,研究结果表明 ,DME的预混合燃烧放热率比柴油低 ,缸内最大爆发压力和最大压力升高率比柴油低。由于喷油持续期延长 ,DME的燃烧持续期比柴油长 ,在上止点后 80° CA出现一个较大的放热峰值。     

Ignition and combustion of n-heptane droplets in carbon dioxide enriched environments

The ignition process and burning characteristics of fiber-supported n-heptane fuel droplets in carbon dioxide enriched and varying pressure environments have been studied under normal gravity. Measured values of droplet burning rates, flame dimensions, broad-band radiant emission, and ignition times were compared to droplets burning in standard air conditions. The burning rate constants increased with increasing carbon dioxide concentration or pressure. For 21% ambient oxygen concentration ignition was achieved for carbon dioxide concentrations up to 46% with the remaining being nitrogen. The experimental burning rates were compared to existing theoretical models. A flammability map for n-heptane burning under normal gravity as a function of carbon dioxide concentration and pressure was also developed using these results.     

Electrochemical power sources for unmanned underwater vehicles used in deep sea survey operations

A comparison of available energy from different power sources for unmanned underwater vehicles, discharged at atmospheric pressure or at ambient pressure, has been undertaken. The basis for the comparison has been a neutrally buoyant power source with a total volume of 300 l. For deep diving vehicles, the use of batteries that can operate at ambient pressure is advantageous. This advantage increases as the mean density of the battery decreases and as the mean density of the pressure hull increases. A fuel cell using spherical gas containers is also an attractive power source for deep diving survey underwater vehicles.     

Numerical investigation of the ignition delay time of a translucent solid at high radiant heat fluxes

A one-dimensional numerical model describing the physical and chemical phenomena occurring in a translucent solid fuel up to ignition is used to investigate the failure of the classical ignition theory at radiant heat fluxes above 70 kW/m². Comparison with a very large dataset of experimental measurements of time to piloted ignition for black PMMA (PolyMethylMethAcrylate) samples shows that model predictions agree well for heat fluxes from 20 to 200 kW/m². The only two available sets of experimental data for ignition at high heat fluxes for black-carbon coated and uncoated samples are used. Predictions of the transient temperature profiles inside the solid at different heat fluxes also agree well with measurements. Among all the mechanisms investigated, agreement with measurements at heat fluxes above 70 kW/m² is only possible when in-depth radiation absorption is included in the model. Observed behaviour at high heat fluxes cannot be explained by the reaction scheme, ignition criterion, temperature dependency of material properties, surface heat losses or radiation attenuation by pyrolyzates. The model is also used to show that the traditional coating of black carbon added on the sample does not cancel in-depth radiation absorption but its effect is to absorb at the surface around 35% of the incoming radiation. The work explains the failure of the classical ignition theory at high heat fluxes and it is the first time that the effect of black-carbon coating is explained and quantified.     

低气压下平直翅片管换热器空气侧刘易斯因子的实验研究

在高空低气压环境模拟舱内对平直翅片管换热器的传热传质特性进行了实验,研究了不同环境压力下刘易斯因子的变化规律和影响因素,并引入了压力修正因子用来预测不同环境压力下的刘易斯因子。实验结果表明:当环境压力从101.3 kPa下降到40 kPa,刘易斯因子变化显著,最大降幅为22.2%,最大增幅为53.7%;当换热器翅片表面为部分湿工况时,入口空气含湿量对刘易斯因子影响较大,全湿工况下入口空气含湿量影响不明显;随环境压力的下降,翅片表面发生部分湿工况到全湿工况的转变,转变前刘易斯因子随环境压力下降而减小,转变后刘易斯因子随环境压力的下降而增大;引入压力修正因子后关联式能较好地预测不同环境压力下刘易斯因子,关联式和99%实验数据点的相对误差在±20%以内。     

Research progress of proton exchange membrane fuel cells utilizing in high altitude environments

The unconventional working conditions bring more challenges to the operation of proton exchange membrane fuel cells in high altitude environments. One is vibration caused by road turbulence when fuel cell vehicles are in the process of driving, the others are harsh operating environment of low pressure, cathode air starvation, and low ambient temperature etc. at a high altitude. Furthermore, the occurred literature displays that these abnormal working conditions caused at high altitude environments exhibit significant impact on the working state of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Thus, we review the research progress of proton exchange membrane fuel cells affected by various unconventional conditions caused by high altitude climate environments, including vibration, low pressure, cathode air starvation, and low ambient temperature conditions, respectively. And at the end, we anticipate further research directions of fuel cells in high altitude climate environments.     

Determination of characteristic parameters for the thermal decomposition of epoxy resin/carbon fibre composites in cone calorimeter

Present study concerns to the thermal degradation of two carbon fibre/epoxy composites, which differ by their volume fractions in carbon fibre (56 and 59 vol%), investigated in cone calorimeter (under atmospheric condition with a piloted ignition). In order to study the influence of the carbon fibre amount on the composite thermal decomposition, the cone calorimeter external heat flux was varied up to 75 kW m⁻². Thus, main parameters of the thermal decomposition of two different composites determined were: mass loss, mass loss rate, ignition time, thermal response parameter, ignition temperature, critical heat flux, thermal inertia and heat of gasification. As a result, when carbon fibre fraction decreases from 59 to 56 vol%, an increase of the thermal parameters was observed: 14–18 kW m⁻² for critical heat flux, 370–435 kW s^1/2 m⁻² for thermal response parameter, 2.25–5.07 kW² s m⁻⁴ K⁻² for thermal inertia and 16–18 kJ g⁻¹ for gasification heat. By analysing the mass loss rate evolutions, a four phases thermal decomposition mechanism is proposed. In the first phase, epoxy resin is cracked to form low molecular weight gaseous species and epoxy-derived compounds. For two next phases, the combustion of epoxy resin and liquor monomer solvent is observed that induces the formation of carbon char. In the last phase, char oxidation and carbon fibre decomposition are identified. Further, during the composite decomposition process, thermal behaviour of solid matrix is changed from a thermally thick material to a thermally thin one when sample is exposed at high external heat flux above 20 kW m⁻².     

Autoignition of toluene and benzene at elevated pressures in a rapid compression machine

Autoignition of toluene and benzene is investigated in a rapid compression machine at conditions relevant to HCCI (homogeneous charge compression ignition) combustion. Experiments are conducted for homogeneous mixtures over a range of equivalence ratios at compressed pressures from 25 to 45 bar and compressed temperatures from 920 to 1100 K. Experiments varying oxygen concentration while keeping the mole fraction of toluene constant reveal a strong influence of oxygen in promoting ignition. Additional experiments varying fuel mole fraction at a fixed equivalence ratio show that ignition delay becomes shorter with increasing fuel concentration. Moreover, autoignition of benzene shows significantly higher activation energy than that of toluene. In addition, the experimental pressure traces for toluene show behavior of heat release significantly different from the results of Davidson et al. [D.F. Davidson, B.M. Gauthier, R.K. Hanson, Proc. Combust. Inst. 30 (2005) 1175–1182]. Predictability of various detailed kinetic mechanisms is also compared. Results demonstrate that the existing mechanisms for toluene and benzene fail to predict the experimental data with respect to ignition delay and heat release. Flux analysis is further conducted to identify the dominant reaction pathways and the reactions responsible for the mismatch of experimental and simulated data.     

Transient heat and mass transfer at the ignition of vapor and gas mixture by a moving hot particle

The processes of heat and mass transfer at the ignition of air and typical combustible liquid vapors mixture by a moving single metal particle heated till high temperatures are numerically investigated. The researches are carried out on the base of gas phase ignition model considering processes of heat conductivity, liquid evaporation, diffusion and convection of fuel vapors in oxidizing medium, ignition source crystallization, kinetic of evaporation and ignition processes, dependences of thermo physical properties of interacting substances from temperature, air humidity, heating source movement in vapor and gas mixture. The dependences of main characteristic of investigated process – ignition time delay from rate of particle motion, air humidity and temperature, distance between heating source and liquid surface, initial temperature and sizes of particle are determined.     

A study of flame spread along a droplet array at elevated pressures up to a supercritical pressure

Experimental investigations on flame spread along a droplet array have been conducted at elevated pressures up to supercritical pressures of the fuel droplet under normal gravity and microgravity. The flame spread rate is measured using high‐speed chemiluminescence images of OH radicals and direct visualization is employed to observe the images of the vaporizing fuel around the unburnt droplet. The mode of flame spread is categorized into two: a continuous mode and an intermittent one. There exist a limit droplet spacing and a limit ambient pressure in normal gravity, above which flame spread does not occur. It is seen that flame spread rate is dependent upon the relative position of flame to droplet spacing. In microgravity, the limit droplet spacing of flame spread and the droplet spacing of maximum flame spread rate are larger than those in normal gravity. In microgravity, the flame spread rate with ambient pressure decreases initially, shows a minimum, and then decreases again after taking a maximum. Flame spread time is determined by competing effects between the increased transfer time of the thermal boundary layer due to reduced flame diameter and the decreased ignition delay time in terms of the increase of ambient pressure. In normal gravity, the flame spread rate with ambient pressure decreases monotonically and there exists a limit ambient pressure, except at small droplet spacing, under which flame spread extends to the range of supercritical pressures of fuel. This is because natural convection induces the upward flow of hot gases into a plume above the burning droplets and limits the lateral transfer of thermal boundary layer. Consequently, it is found that flame spread behaviour under microgravity is considerably different from that under normal gravity due to the absence of natural convection. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

不同气氛和尺寸下可燃物热解与着火特性的试验研究

对生产和生活中常用的白松、椴木、桦木三种建筑装潢材料，在自行研制的火灾可燃物热解与着火特性试验台上进行了着火特性试验。在40kW／m^2外加辐射热流、5％、15％和18％氧浓度及空气气氛条件下，得到了三种材料的表面温度随时间变化的规律，同时测量了三种材料在缺氧环境下的质量损失速率随时间的变化，给出了气氛对材料热解与着火的影响。对桦木和白松进行了不同尺寸的着火性能试验，给出了其表面温度及质量损失随时间变化的曲线，得出了材料尺寸对着火性能的影响规律。图10表3参15     

The possibility of an accidental scenario for marine transportation of fuel cell vehicle: Hydrogen releases from TPRD by radiant heat from lower deck

In case fires break out on the lower deck of a car carrier ship or a ferry, the fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) parked on the upper deck may be exposed to radiant heat from the lower deck. Assuming that the thermal pressure relief device (TPRD) of an FCV hydrogen cylinder is activated by the radiant heat without the presence of flames, hydrogen gas will be released by TPRD to form combustible air-fuel mixtures in the vicinity. To investigate the possibility of this accident scenario, the present study investigated the relationship between radiant heat and TPRD activation time and evaluated the possibility of radiant heat causing hydrogen releases by TPRD activation under the condition of deck temperature reaching the spontaneous ignition level of the tires and other automotive parts. It was found: a) the tires as well as polypropylene and other plastic parts underwent spontaneous ignition before TPRD was activated by radiant heat and b) when finally TPRD was activated, the hydrogen releases were rapidly burned by the flames of the tires and plastic parts on fire. Consequently it was concluded that the explosion of air-fuel mixtures assumed in the accident scenario does not occur in the real world.