Use of partial stimulus information in response processing.

We examined the reaction time (RT) benefit that is obtained when salient features of the stimulus set and response set correspond. Components of the event-related brain potentials were used to measure the timing of stimulus-related and response-related processes in order to determine the locus of this effect. Of particular importance was the development of a new index of selective response preparation, the corrected motor asymmetry (CMA). We found no evidence for the use of preliminary, partial stimulus information in response preparation. These results suggest that the benefit is located primarily in response selection processes and probably reflects a more efficient algorithm for stimulus-response translation. Also, we found trial-to-trial variability in the duration of response selection to be the major determinant of variability in RT, whereas the durations of subsequent response-related processes were relatively invariant. Implications of these results for discrete and continuous models of choice reaction performance are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive precedence for local information in hierarchical stimulus processing by pigeons.

Four experiments investigated the processing of hierarchical stimuli by pigeons. Using a 4 alternative divided–attention task, 4 pigeons were food-reinforced for accurately identifying letters arranged as either hierarchical global- or local-relevant stimuli or as size-matched filled stimuli. Experiment 1 found that task acquisition was faster with local-relevant than global-relevant stimuli. This difference was not due to letter size. Experiment 2 demonstrated successful transfer to a novel irrelevant letter configuration. Experiments 3 and 4 tested pigeons' responses to conflict probe stimuli composed of equally discriminable relevant letters at each level. These tests revealed that all of the pigeons showed a cognitive precedence for local information early in processing, with the pigeons using different cues to initiate the processing of global information. This local advantage contrasts with previously reported results for humans and pigeons but is similar to that reported for nonhuman primates. Alternatives attempting to reconcile these contrasting comparative results are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early stimulus processing in dysthymia and anhedonia.

Previous event-related brain potential (ERP) research has found that dysthymic Ss differ from control Ss during later stages of information processing. An important issue that emerges from this literature is whether differences found in these ERP components, typically associated with cognitive processing, can be attributed to earlier differences in basic perceptual processing. This study was undertaken to determine whether early processing deficits are apparent in dysthymic persons. Responses of dysthymics (n?=?23) were compared with those of anhedonic (n?=?15) and normal control (n?=?17) Ss. ERPs were recorded while Ss heard tones at 55, 65, 75, 85, and 95 dB. Overall, N1-P1 and N1-P2 components of the ERP increased in a strong linear fashion as stimulus intensity increased. Dysthymics did exhibit a smaller N1-P2 response than normal Ss, which suggests the presence of difficulties in initial perceptual processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The discrimination of sequences in stimulus events and the transmission of information.

Indicates the importance to psychologists of the communication model in analyzing behavior as a time series. Uses illustrations from the areas of clinical diagnosis, trouble shooting, and problem solving behavior to show how a time series analysis of behavior may be useful. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between information processing and language production.

We explored the relationships between information processing and language in order to further the understanding of language disturbances in psychiatric patients. To assess the impact of reduced processing capacity on language, 50 undergraduates completed an interview concurrent with a category monitoring task and a control interview without a concurrent task. Syntactic complexity, verbosity, and pause patterns were all disrupted by a reduction in processing capacity. In addition, individual differences in syntactic complexity and information processing were significantly associated, even after accounting for verbal intelligence. We discuss the relevance of the results for understanding language disturbances in psychopathology and hypothesize that a reduction in processing capacity may underlie the decreased syntactic complexity, decreased verbal output, and increased pause length found in schizophrenia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The attentional blink across stimulus modalities: Evidence for central processing limitations.

When participants are asked to report a visual target and find a subsequent visual probe, a deficit in probe report accuracy is usually found during an interval of several hundred milliseconds after the target. This attentional blink (AB) deficit has often been attributed to a uniquely visual limitation. In this research, targets and probes were created and defined in terms of auditory information. Target modality (visual or auditory) was fully crossed with probe modality (visual or auditory). In Experiment 1, a robust AB, found in all modality conditions, was equally large for cross-modality and within-modality target and probe combinations. Experiments 2 and 3 ruled out two alternative explanations for cross-modal blinks. Experiment 4 showed that as the rate of presentation was slowed, the AB for auditory probes attenuated more quickly than for visual probes. Results are discussed in terms of a central (amodal) limitation of attention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Familiarity effects in visual information processing.

Reviews the literature and deals, predominantly, with the issue of whether familiarity aids in the extraction of visual features or in the interpretation, either verbal or visual, of the features extracted. Familiar visual objects, such as normal letters and real words, are processed faster and more accurately than are unfamiliar objects. This fact is massively documented by a wide variety of studies, involving tachistoscopic recognition, visual comparison, and letter detection. Less clear is how and where familiarity has its effect. There actually appear to be several familiarity effects, some aiding the extraction and/or interpretation of visual information, others aiding nonperceptual processes (e.g., storing and reporting or comparing the information). (31/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Human information processing in navigational displays.

Studies of abstract picture–sentence verification tasks have shown that people exhibit directional biases in the way they think about spatial orientation; for example, they decide faster about diagrams involving the term "right" than the term "left." The roles of these and other human limitations in processing displays of target and own-ship movements were evaluated with 2 groups (experienced and inexperienced) of 7 submarine officers each. In 2 1-hr sessions, each officer made 192 judgments of computer-generated diagrams repesenting the linear movements of own ship and target ship. The standard picture verification task paradigm was used to measure response times. Direction of motion, right or left, per se did not reliably influence response time, but the S's level of experience, amount of practice at the task, display truth value, stimulus congruity, and stimulus–response compatibility did. The study demonstrates how the effects of factors isolated through basic research can be demonstrated in operationally relevant tasks. Implications for training are discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Second-order facial information processing in schizophrenia.

This study investigated the processing of second-order relational face information in schizophrenia. Twenty-eight schizophrenic patients and 28 controls were asked to say whether the space between the eyes was the same in 2 side-by-side faces. The 2 faces were derived from the same original face, but the spacing between the eyes was either the same or differed by various distances. The results showed that schizophrenic patients needed a space that was twice as great as controls to see a difference. The authors conclude that schizophrenic patients have a deficit in processing second-order relational face information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Location confusions in visual information processing.

Tested in 2 experiments, using 21 undergraduates, the location-confusion model proposed by P. Dixon (see record 1986-21077-001) to account for interference that occurs when deciding whether a briefly presented target item appeared in a briefly presented array. The model assumed that information about the location of items decayed quickly and that Ss sometimes had difficulty deciding whether a particular identity code corresponded to the target or the array. Exp 1 confirmed the assumption that the interference only occurred with visual targets. Exp 2 tested for interference at the level of identity codes for well-learned vs arbitrary visual patterns (AVPs). No interference from AVPs on accuracy was observed. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of stimulus properties on multisensory processing in the awake primate superior colliculus.

Evaluated the influence of physical properties of sensory stimuli (visual intensity, direction, and velocity; auditory intensity and location) on sensory activity and multisensory integration of superior colliculus (SC) neurons in awake, behaving primates. Two male monkeys were trained to fixate a central visual fixation point while visual and/or auditory stimuli were presented in the periphery. Visual stimuli were always presented within the contralateral receptive field of the neuron whereas auditory stimuli were presented at either ipsi- or contralateral locations. 66 of the 84 SC neurons responsive to these sensory stimuli had stronger responses when the visual and auditory stimuli were combined at contralateral locations than when the auditory stimulus was located on the ipsilateral side. This trend was significant across the population of auditory-responsive neurons. In addition, 31 SC neurons were presented a battery of tests in which the quality of one stimulus of a pair was systematically manipulated. Eight of these neurons showed preferential responses to stimuli with specific physical properties, and these preferences were not significantly altered when multisensory stimulus combinations were presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-schema and social information processing.

Tested the hypothesis that desirability of self-rating on a trait is predictive of the way information related to that trait is processed during the perception of others. In Exps I and II, 122 undergraduates' self-ratings on 15 traits and yes-no response latencies in person perception were collected. Desirability of self-rating on a trait was related to the perceived general desirability of the trait. This relation was hypothesized to reflect an influence of the self on person perception processes. Consistent with research by the present author (see record 1984-06453-001) on self-image bias, 2 alternative models of this influence were proposed: defensive and cognitive. In Exp III, 72 undergraduates' self-perceptions were manipulated by either positive or negative feedback. Results support the defensive model and indicate that even small situational changes in self-perceptions are capable of producing specific changes in the way an individual processes information about others. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety: Deficits in information processing.

Compared 194 high, medium, and low test-anxious undergraduates (Worry and Emotionality Questionnaire) on the retrieval deficit hypothesis. The hypothesis was supported by results showing that high test-anxious Ss did poorly on essay and short-answer questions but did well on multiple choice questions that involved less active retrieval. Specifically, results show that high test-anxious Ss (a) did poorly on a take-home examination that did not emphasize retrieval, (b) reported problems in learning material throughout the course, (c) had problems picking important points in the reading assignments, and (d) encoded information at a more superficial level. Results imply that the worry reported by high test-anxious Ss may not simply be a personality characteristic but may rather be due to their inadequate knowledge of the subject matter. Results also imply that programs for helping such Ss should emphasize developing learning strategies and coping techniques for the test situation. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impulsivity and speed-accuracy tradeoffs in information processing.

Despite its theoretical importance for such areas of research as reflection–impulsivity (Kagan, 1966), there is little evidence to support the assumption that individual differences in the personality trait of impulsivity are associated with differences in the willingness to sacrifice accuracy for speed of information processing. The present studies explored this association further. In Experiment 1, high, medium, and low impulsives (identified by self-report) performed a visual-comparison task under conditions differing in the monetary payoff for speed relative to accuracy. High impulsives were consistently faster and less accurate than other Ss. However, an analysis based on Sternberg's (1969) additive-factor method indicated that high impulsives performed at least one stage of information processing as slowly and accurately as other Ss. In Experiment 2, high impulsives were actually more accurate than low impulsives when all Ss were required to process information extremely rapidly. Experiment 3 identified the response execution stage as one that high impulsives carry out just as slowly and accurately as other individuals. Data pose problems for a simple speed-accuracy tradeoff model of impulsive cognitive functioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual factors in children's social information processing.

Attributions and social problem solutions of socially accepted and rejected boys and girls (M age?=?9.33 yrs) were assessed by verbal responses to hypothetical vignettes embedded in a computer mathematics game involving 3 contextual factors: interpersonal context (competition or collaboration), outcome of the game (success or failure), and story type (ambiguous provocation or peer group entry). More hostile attributions of intent were provided in the failure than in the success condition and in the ambiguous provocation than in the peer group entry stories. More aggressive problem solutions were provided in ambiguous provocation than in peer group entry stories. Boys offered more aggressive solutions than girls in the cooperation condition but not the competition condition and for the provocation stories but not the peer group entry stories. Rejected children offered somewhat more aggressive solutions than accepted children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eye movements in reading and information processing.

Reviews studies of eye movements in reading and other information-processing tasks such as picture viewing, visual search, and problem solving. The major emphasis of the review is on reading as a specific example of the more general phenomenon of cognitive processing. Basic topics discussed are the perceptual span, eye guidance, integration across saccades, control of fixation durations, individual differences, and eye movements as they relate to dyslexia and speed reading. In addition, eye movements and the use of peripheral vision and scan paths in picture perception, visual search, and pattern recognition are discussed, as is the role of eye movements in visual illusion. The basic theme of the review is that eye movement data reflect the cognitive processes occurring in a particular task. Theoretical and practical considerations concerning the use of eye movement data are also presented. (7? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intra- and interhemispheric information processing in schizophrenia.

Reviews the literature on intra- and interhemispheric information processing in schizophrenia with respect to dichotic and monotic listening, hemiretinal presentation, and dihaptic stimulation. There appears to be little support for the notion that schizophrenia is related to interhemispheric transfer deficits or abnormal functional lateralization. The performance deficits manifested by schizophrenics on lateral information-processing tasks are also incompatible with models on left-hemisphere brain damage. Results suggest left-hemisphere overactivation and consequent temporal abnormalities in processing sensory information directed to the right sensory field. (153 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hemispheric changes in information processing during development.

Hemispheric processing of visually presented words and pictures was examined in 3 groups of Ss with mean ages of 8 yrs 8 mo, 12 yrs 3 mo, and 27 yrs 9 mo (154 Ss). Pictorial or symbolic stimuli were presented singly to either the right or left visual hemifield. Ss had to decide whether the 1st stimulus in a pair matched the 2nd stimulus. The major results were that (a) age groups differed in the strength of lateral differences, and (b) for all age groups, the right hemisphere was significantly faster in processing unmatched stimuli. Results suggest that lateral specialization of the left hemisphere is not complete until adolescence and that over the age range tested, the left hemisphere becomes progressively more specialized for the processing of matched data. (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goals in social information processing: The case of anticipated interaction.

Examined the role of anticipated-interaction instructions on memory for and organization of social information. In Study 1, Ss read and recalled information about a prospective partner (i.e., target) on a problem-solving task and about 4 other stimulus people. The results indicated that (a) Ss recalled more items about the target than the others, (b) the target was individuated from the others in memory, and (c) Ss were more accurate on a name–item matching task for the target than for the others. Study 2 compared anticipated interaction with several other processing goals (i.e., memory, impression formation, self-comparison, friend-comparison). Only anticipated-interaction and impression formation instructions led to higher levels of recall and more accurate matching performance for the target than for the others. However, the conditional probability data suggest that anticipated interaction led to higher levels of organization of target information than did any of the other conditions. Discussion considers information processing strategies that are possibly instigated by anticipated-interaction instructions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential modulations of interference evoked by processing task-irrelevant stimulus features.

Compatibility level repetition benefits in interference paradigms have been taken to reflect enhanced processing selectivity in response to cognitive conflict elicited by a task-irrelevant stimulus feature. The authors demonstrate such sequential effects in the Simon task which (a) occur independent of previous behavioral conflict effects and (b) cannot be accounted for by selectivity enhancement. Furthermore, when presenting more than one type of irrelevant stimulus features, compatibility level repetition effects occurred in a type-specific manner. The results do not support the notion that cognitive conflict results in enhanced processing selectivity and favor a feature integration account. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)