Moral internalization, parental power, and the nature of parent-child interaction.

The following arguments are offered for the view that the frequent correlation between discipline and internalization reflects parental influence: (a) Since parental discipline exerts more constraint on the child than the child exerts on the parent, child attributes like internalization that probably derived from behaviors and inner states associated with compliance are more apt to be consequents than antecedents of discipline. (b) Congenital and other factors that may affect discipline do not negate its effects on internalization. It is also hypothesized that discipline is important because it gives children the experience, necessary for internalization, of achieving balance between expressing and controlling desires. The parent-child relation is conceptualized so as to fit the facts of both everyday interaction and long-term effects, especially on the child. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Work sampling for personnel selection.

Developed a work sample checklist from supervisors' ratings of important tasks and behaviors expected of maintenance mechanics. The test was given to 34 employees by an outside e, and checklist evaluations were compared with (a) supervisors' evaluation of each s on 3 factors; and (b) ss' responses on the test of mechanical comprehension, the wonderlic personnel test, and the short employment tests. Results indicate that performance on the work sample was significantly related to supervisory evaluations of job success, but that none of the validity coefficients for the paper-and-pencil tests was significant. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's perceptions of the fairness of parental preferential treatment and their socioemotional well-being.

Being the recipient of favored parental treatment has been identified as a correlate of enhanced socioemotional well-being. However, knowledge of children's perceptions of the legitimacy of preferential treatment may provide a more complete understanding of associations between preferential treatment and children's socioemotional well-being. The current study investigated whether children's well-being varies in accordance with their views about the fairness of preferential parental treatment. One hundred thirty-five children (M=11.74 years) and their older siblings (M=14.64 years) were interviewed independently about parents' distribution of affection and control. Although the amount of preferential control children reported experiencing was related to more externalizing behavior problems, lower levels of internalizing behavior problems and greater global self-esteem were indicated when children perceived that such preferential behaviors were fair. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relations of parental emotional expressivity with quality of Indonesian children's social functioning.

In Western societies, parental expression of positive emotion has been positively related to the quality of children's social functioning, whereas their expression of negative emotion has been negatively or inconsistently related. The relations of parental expressivity to 3rd-grade Indonesian children's dispositional regulation, socially appropriate behavior, popularity, and sympathy were examined. Parents, teachers, and peers reported on children's social functioning and regulation, and parents (mostly mothers) reported on their own expression of emotion in the family. Generally, parental expression of negative emotion was negatively related to the quality of children's social functioning, and regression analyses indicated that the relations of parental negative expressivity to children's popularity and externalizing behaviors might be indirect through their effects on children's regulation. Unexpectedly, parental expression of positive emotion was unrelated to children's social functioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations between parental control and warmth and child well-being in stepfamilies.

Examined type-of-stepfamily differences in child well-being and parenting behaviors and how child well-being in stepfamilies relates to parenting behaviors. Data were drawn from the National Survey of Families and Households (J. A. Sweet et al, 1988) and included fathers and mothers in 448 stepfather, 76 stepmother, and 41 complex stepfamilies. Biological parents in stepfamilies perceived themselves as having higher quality relationships with their children than stepparents reported having with their stepchildren. Although stepfathers reported behaving less positively toward their children than did other fathers, stepmothers reported responding as positively to their stepchildren as did biological mothers in stepfamilies. In general, child well-being was positively related to perceptions of parental warmth. The relations between parental control and child well-being varied for different dimensions of well-being and in different types of stepfamilies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Erratum: "Moral Internalization, Parental Power, and the Nature of Parent-Child Interaction."

Reports an error in the original article by M. L. Hoffman (Developmental Psychology, 1975[Mar], 11[2], 228-239). The sentence beginning on the fifth line in the third paragraph, second column, page 233, should read: "An affectionate, trusting child, for example, may be expected to elicit more inductive and less power-assertive discipline than a less affectionate, less trusting child." (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1975-20841-001.) The following arguments are offered for the view that the frequent correlation between discipline and internalization reflects parental influence: (a) Since parental discipline exerts more constraint on the child than the child exerts on the parent, child attributes like internalization that probably derived from behaviors and inner states associated with compliance are more apt to be consequents than antecedents of discipline. (b) Congenital and other factors that may affect discipline do not negate its effects on internalization. It is also hypothesized that discipline is important because it gives children the experience, necessary for internalization, of achieving balance between expressing and controlling desires. The parent-child relation is conceptualized so as to fit the facts of both everyday interaction and long-term effects, especially on the child. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subject's attitudes toward psychology as a determinant of experimental results.

Proposed attitudes toward psychology and psychological research as the basis of ss' differential willingness to cooperate with the demands of the experiment. To test this proposition, demand characteristics for positive opinion-change were communicated in a pretest-posttest design with 144 undergraduates as ss. The psychology research survey (prs) was developed to measure ss' attitudes toward psychology. Although all ss showed significant opinion-change, it was found, as predicted, that ss with more positive attitudes toward psychology showed significantly greater opinion change than ss with less positive attitudes. In addition, prs scores were significantly positively correlated with posttest and opinion-change scores and nonsignificantly correlated with pretest scores. The potential role of attitudes towards psychology as a determinant of ss' experimental performance is discussed. (french summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth order and identification.

Observations drawn from different sources suggest that as compared with later-born individuals, the 1st born participates in a more intense mothering relationship, has a shorter duration of interaction with siblings, turns to his parents in the absence of other role models, is exposed to greater parental expectations regarding responsibility and achievement, develops a harsher superego, and is more inclined to choose occupations involving a parent-surrogate role—in short, that he is more adult oriented than later borns. It was hypothesized, therefore, that 1st borns would demonstrate greater internalization of parental norms and values. Results supported the hypothesis for inhibitory-disciplinarian behaviors but not for emotionally supportive-rewarding behaviors. Implications for processes of identification and super-ego development are considered. (31 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting practices as predictors of substance use, delinquency, and aggression among urban minority youth: Moderating effects of family structure and gender.

This study examined how parenting factors were associated with adolescent problem behaviors among urban minority youth and to what extent these relationships were moderated by family structure and gender. 228 6th grade students reported how often they use alcohol, smoke cigarettes, or engage in aggressive or delinquent behaviors; a parent or guardian reported their monitoring and other parenting practices. Findings indicated that boys and those from single-parent families engaged in the highest rates of problem behavior. More parental monitoring was associated with less delinquency overall, as well as less drinking in boys only. Eating family dinners together was associated with less aggression overall, as well as less delinquency in youth from single-parent families and in girls. Unsupervised time at home alone was associated with more smoking for girls only. Implications for prevention interventions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A review of children's reports of parent behaviors.

Analyzed the literature on children's reports of parent behaviors in terms of a model combining features from E. S. Schaefer and M. Seigelman. 3 orthogonal factors loving (acceptance-rejection), demanding (psychological control), and punishment and the intersecting planes of the 1st 2 factors describe the traditional domain of parent-child interactional variables as reported by children. However, process variables such as perceived parental consistency, delay of reward, etc., and noninteractional variables such as parental social sex role, etc., are not described by the combined model. The model was applied to empirical findings, and the children's reports of parent behaviors were shown to be different for mother-report and father-report and to be related clearly to the sex, social class, and behavior of the children. Suggestions are presented for additional research which is relevant to both theoretical and applied goals. (2 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Informational social influence and product evaluation.

Describes a class marketing research project in which 144 undergraduates, in 4 groups, were asked to evaluate a new product. 2 groups of ss were exposed to 16 scaled product evaluations (supposedly from peers). High uniformity and low uniformity conditions were determined by degree of dispersion, and ss expected their evaluations to be visible to others. 2 remaining groups were given no information regarding others' evaluations, and one of these groups expected their evaluations to be visible to others. It was found that ss' subsequent evaluations were significantly influenced by others' ratings, the greatest influence occurring under the high uniformity-visibility condition. There was, however, no significant difference due to ss' expectations that their ratings would be visible to others. Individual differences in interpersonal response orientations were not significantly related to the acceptance of information from others, although the direction of results was in accord with predictions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of specific emotions in children's responses to interparental conflict: A test of the model.

Mothers, fathers, and their 6-year-old children (N?=?164) participated in a study testing key tenets of the specific emotions model of marital conflict. Parents reported their marital conflict strategies, were observed interacting with their children, and rated children's behavioral adjustment. Children reported their emotional reactions to specific interparental conflicts. Results support the specific emotions model. Children's behaviors mirrored the marital or parental behaviors of same-gender parents. Indirect effects of marital aggression through parental behavior were detected, and marital and parental behaviors interacted to predict girls' externalizing. Girls' anger, sadness, and fear increased with fathers' marital aggression. Fear and the anger by fear interaction predicted girls' internalizing. Fathers' marital aggression interacted with anger to predict externalizing and interacted with fear to predict internalizing behavior in boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of target value and exposure duration on recall in a visual search task.

Investigated the effects of exposure duration (.5, .75, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 sec/slide) and ratio of value (16:1 and 2:1) on the recall of high- and low-value letters in a visual search task. Results with 80 male undergraduates indicate that although ss' strategies tended to favor reports of the high- over the low-value stimuli, differences in performance varied directly with both ratio and length of exposure. Results are discussed and related to the inconsistencies in previous findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family influences on school achievement in low-income, African American children.

The authors examined the achievement-related beliefs and behaviors of parents of economically disadvantaged African American youth, and the relations among parental factors and children's academic self-concept and achievement. Forty-one children and their primary caregivers were interviewed. Parents reported on their academic-related beliefs and behaviors. Children completed measures of academic self-concept and 2 standardized achievement tests: 1 during the summer and 1 at the end of the following school year. Significant and positive relations were found between parental belief and behavior measures within the domains of reading and math; however, parental beliefs were more strongly linked with child outcomes than were parents' achievement-oriented behaviors. The relation between parental beliefs and child outcomes was not mediated by children's academic self-concept. Results are discussed in light of models of family influences on achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review.

Although the merits of parents using corporal punishment to discipline children have been argued for decades, a thorough understanding of whether and how corporal punishment affects children has not been reached. Toward this end, the author first presents the results of meta-analyses of the association between parental corporal punishment and 11 child behaviors and experiences. Parental corporal punishment was associated with all child constructs, including higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression and lower levels of moral internalization and mental health. The author then presents a process-context model to explain how parental corporal punishment might cause particular child outcomes and considers alternative explanations. The article concludes by identifying 7 major remaining issues for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived threat of illness and health protective behaviors in offspring of adults with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

Self-reported measures of perceived threat of illness, health protective behaviors, psychological well-being, and family modeling of health behaviors of 30 adults with a parental history of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) were compared with responses from 29 adults with a parental history of hypertension and 30 adults with no parental history of chronic illness. The NIDDM risk group reported significantly more perceived threats of NIDDM and hypertension and more weight-control efforts than the controls did. Reports of the NIDDM risk respondents concerning physician screening, healthy diet, and exercise did not differ from reports of individuals without a family history of NIDDM. Perceived threat, psychological well-being, and family modeling did not correlate with health-protective behaviors. The findings suggest that offspring of adults diagnosed with NIDDM perceive themselves to be at risk of NIDDM and engage in health behaviors, such as weight control, to protect themselves from NIDDM onset.     

Relationships between nocturnal activity, parental ratings of daytime activity and measues from the Children's Sleep Behaviour Scale.

Monitored the nocturnal activity levels of 20 boys and 20 girls (mean age 10.46 yrs) from 12:00 AM to 6:00 AM over 2 consecutive nights in their homes. Frequency of sleep-related behaviors based on retrospective parental ratings was assessed by the Children's Sleep Behavior Scale (CSBS). Children who were rated high on sleep behaviors with an observable motor component were also more active during the night, thereby validating the motor subscale of the CSBS. Nocturnal activity was associated with another CSBS-derived sleep score that included items with positive affective content, such as laughing and smiling while asleep. Children who showed bedtime resistance behaviors and complained of difficulty going to sleep were not more active during the night. Gender, age, and parental perception of daytime activity levels were not related to objective measures of nocturnal activity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The joint and differential perceived contribution of parents to adolescents' cognitive functioning.

Administered the Personality Research Form (PRF) and the Parent Behavior Form (PBF) to 301 female and 101 male undergraduates; American College Testing Program (ACT) scores were also obtained. Analyses revealed that PRF scales indicative of intellectual orientation and approach to tasks (Understanding, Achievement, and Endurance), as well as ACT scores, were related principally to parental cognitive behaviors (the parents' encouragement of intellectual independence, competence, and curiosity) for both males and females. In addition, differential and joint effects of parents were obtained depending upon the sex of the child. Findings suggest that parental cognitive behaviors, which have received little experimental attention, are saliently related to child intellectual characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Intergenerational Transmission of Externalizing Behaviors in Adult Participants: The Mediating Role of Childhood Abuse.

Childhood abuse was investigated as a potential mediator of the intergenerational transmission of externalizing behaviors (EXT) in adulthood among a large general population sample drawn from the National Comorbidity Survey. Community participants (N = 5,424) underwent diagnostic and psychosocial interviews and reported on their own adult symptoms of antisocial behavior and substance dependence, parental symptoms, and childhood abuse history. Multiple group structural equation modeling revealed that (a) EXT in parents was associated with childhood abuse in offspring, particularly among mother- daughter dyads, (b) abuse had a unique influence on adult EXT in offspring above parental EXT, and (c) abuse accounted for the relationship between parental EXT and offspring EXT in female but not male participants. This article emphasizes the importance of examining different environmental processes which may explain familial transmission of destructive behaviors in men and women and highlights the importance of family interventions that target parental symptoms to ameliorate risk to offspring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond cognition: Expanding the search for the early roots of internalization and conscience.

J. E. Grusec and J. J. Goodnow (see record 1994-25033-001) offered a new comprehensive reformulation of discipline encounters as context for children's internalization of parental views. They focused mainly on children's social information processing and how it affects perception and acceptance of parental messages. The model seems best suited for middle childhood and adolescence. This commentary suggests additional directions in research on internalization in early childhood. It is argued that processes such as social referencing, sensitivity to standard violations, emergence of self, emotional reactions to wrongdoing, early self-conscious emotions, and self-regulation may be important antecedents and signs of internalization in the 1st 3 yrs of life. The proposed shift from cognitive to affective and self-regulatory aspects of early conscience reveals children's temperament as an important but neglected contributor to early moral development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)