Outcomes in group psychotherapy: Using persuasion theory to increase treatment efficiency.

Attempted to predict the outcomes of group psychotherapy using attitude theory. 34 group therapy patients and their therapists were tested on a questionnaire designed to measure 7 attitudes varying in centrality. At the conclusion of 3 mo of therapy, it was found that among attitudes of medium centrality initial attitude difference between patient and therapist was more strongly related to attitude change than were either attitude similarity or acceptability. However, initial patient-therapist similarity and acceptability of attitudes were related more to patient-rated improvement than was attitude dissimilarity. Results are discussed as they relate to psychotherapy as an interpersonal influence process, predictable by persuasion theory. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

I'm a hypocrite, but so is everyone else: Group support and the reduction of cognitive dissonance.

The impact of social support on dissonance arousal was investigated from a social identity view of dissonance theory. This perspective is seen as augmenting current conceptualizations of dissonance theory by predicting when normative information will impact on dissonance arousal and by indicating the availability of identity-related strategies of dissonance reduction. An experiment was conducted to induce feelings of hypocrisy under conditions of behavioral support or nonsupport. Group salience was either high or low, or individual identity was emphasized. As predicted, participants with no support from the salient in-group exhibited the greatest need to reduce dissonance through attitude change and reduced levels of group identification. Results were interpreted in terms of self being central to the arousal and reduction of dissonance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dissonance arousal: Physiological evidence.

Two studies examined whether cognitive dissonance is accompanied by physiological arousal. In Exp I, a standard induced-compliance paradigm was replicated and found to produce the expected pattern of attitude change in 30 male undergraduates. In Exp II, physiological recordings were obtained from 30 additional male undergraduates within the same paradigm. Ss who wrote counterattitudinal essays under high-choice conditions displayed significantly more nonspecific skin conductance responses than other Ss, but they did not change their attitudes. Results support dissonance as an arousal process. Results also indicate that the Ss misattributed their arousal to the physiological recording device. Findings are discussed in terms of dissonance theory, misattribution phenomena, and social psychophysiological research methods. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dissonance reduction in the context of group membership: The role of metaconsistency.

Recent work has established that groups can reduce dissonance by providing consonant cognitions, normative support, or an opportunity to diffuse responsibility for counterattitudinal behavior. Adopting a social identity framework, the current research comprised 2 studies examining metaconsistency, which was proposed to underlie these disparate explanations for the effect of social support. In Study 1 (N = 121), participants performed a counterattitudinal behavior with or without attitude and behavior support. As expected, congruence between the participants’ attitude–behavior consistency and another’s attitude–behavior consistency reduced attitude change. Study 2 (N = 69) replicated the results of Study 1; in addition, metaconsistency influenced participants’ perceptions of their own attitude–behavior consistency. The implications of metaconsistency for other contemporary perspectives of dissonance theory are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dissonance and alcohol: Drinking your troubles away.

Hypothesized that dissonance arousal would increase the amount of drinking and that drinking, in turn, would reduce dissonance and subsequent attitude change in 3 studies with 133 college students over age 21. In Studies 1 and 2, Ss rated brands of an alcoholic beverage to measure the amount of drinking immediately after dissonance was aroused by having them write a counterattitudinal essay. Ss' attitudes were measured immediately after the drinking. Both studies found that although dissonance arousal had little effect on the amount of drinking, whatever drinking occurred was sufficient to eliminate dissonance-reducing attitude change. Study 2 established that these results occurred for light as well as heavy social drinkers. Studies 2 and 3 showed that neither water nor coffee drinking was sufficient to eliminate attitude change in this paradigm. The implications are that some forms of alcohol abuse may evolve through the reinforcement of drinking as a means of reducing dissonance, and that dissonance may be frequently reduced through behaviors that ameliorate the feelings of dissonance without involving cognitive change. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implications of payment of fees for psychotherapy.

Considers the question of how the payment of fees by clients for psychotherapy and related psychological services influences therapeutic outcomes. Psychoanalytic theory and cognitive dissonance theory suggest that clients who pay for psychotherapy will benefit more than those who pay nothing. This question and related issues are discussed with reference to observations and experimental studies that have explored how fees influence psychotherapy. Presently, sufficient evidence does not exist either to support or refute most of the hypotheses that have been generated, including the one that clients who pay a fee benefit more than those who pay nothing. Explanations for this void in the research literature and suggestions for expanding the understanding of this domain are provided. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conformity and counterattitudinal behavior: The effect of social support on attitude change.

Tested dissonance and attribution theory predictions regarding the effect of social support on attitude change due to counterattitudinal advocacy in 4 studies. Social support among 67 college students who were given course credit was manipulated in a counterattitudinal essay-writing situation by the compliance or noncompliance of a confederate. Contrary to predictions, Ss showed a more positive attitude toward the counterattitudinal issue after the confederate's compliance rather than noncompliance, regardless of choice. Exp II manipulated social support and severity of consequences under consistently high choice with 47 paid male university students. Data support dissonance and attribution predictions under high consequences and replicate the findings of Exp I under low consequences. Exp III, conducted with 53 paid high school students, varied social support and choice under high consequences and showed that noncompliance led to more change than compliance under high choice and the reverse effect under low choice. Exp IV manipulated social support among 67 paid female university students and the confederate's stated attitude in a 2-factor design (under consistently high choice and high consequences), resulting in main effects for both factors. Ss changed more under noncompliance than compliance and with an attitudinally dissimilar rather than similar confederate. Results suggest a functional equivalence of social support as social reward and the financial rewards used in previous studies. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing a model of change in the experiential treatment of depression.

In this study, we measured emotional processing and the alliance across 3 phases of therapy (beginning, working, and termination) for 74 clients who each received brief experiential psychotherapy for depression. Using path analysis, we proposed and tested a model of relationships between these 2 processes across phases of therapy and how these processes relate to predict improvement in the domains of depressive and general symptoms, self-esteem, and interpersonal problems after experiential treatment. Both therapy processes significantly increased across phases of therapy. Controlling for both client processes at the beginning of therapy, working phase emotional processing was found to directly and best predict reductions in depressive and general symptoms, and it could directly predict gains in self-esteem. Within working and termination phases of therapy, the alliance significantly contributed to emotional processing and indirectly contributed to outcome. Surprisingly, beginning therapy alliance (measured after Session 1) also directly predicted all outcomes. Furthermore, only clients’ beginning therapy process predicted reductions in interpersonal problems. Therefore, although the proposed theory of change was supported, clients’ beginning therapy processes may constrain clients’ success in experiential treatment and in particular their outcomes in some problem domains related to depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation of congitive-dissonance theory to an aspect of psychotherapeutic practice.

"The present paper is designed to link dissonance theory with one practical reality-oriented aspect of the process of psychotherapy with emotionally troubled individuals—namely, the charging of fees." Freud stated that "money matters are treated by civilized people in the same way as sexual matters—with the same inconsistency, prudishness, and hypocrisy. It is… avowed… that in order to accomplish any significant therapeutic work the patient must be charged a fee that is somewhat painful and discomforting." Dissonance theory "would predict that if a person paid nothing for something that he believed was worth nothing he would not experience cognitive dissonance. Rather his cognitive world would be in a state of harmony in this regard. My main purpose has been to stimulate greater clinical interest in the possibilities of employing general psychological theories, developed in the more traditional academic areas of psychology, to shed light upon seemingly complex issues in the field of clinical psychology." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trivialization: the forgotten mode of dissonance reduction.

Trivialization as a mode of dissonance reduction and the conditions under which it is likely to occur were explored in 4 studies. Study 1 tested and supported the hypothesis that when the preexisting attitude is made salient, participants will trivialize the dissonant cognitions rather than change their attitudes. Study 2 tested and supported the hypothesis that following a counterattitudinal behavior, participants will choose the first mode of dissonance reduction provided for them, whether it is trivialization or attitude change. Study 3 tested and supported the hypothesis that following a counterattitudinal behavior, the typical self-affirmation treatment leads to trivialization. Study 4 demonstrated that providing a trivializing frame by making an important issue salient also encourages trivialization rather than attitude change even when there was no opportunity for self-affirmation. The implications for cognitive dissonance theory and research are briefly discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitude intensity and dissonant cognitions.

Balance and dissonance theory postulate that tension may be reduced by decreasing the importance of dissonant cognitions. 232 students at a southern university and 261 students at a northern university responded to 3 forms of an attitude scale toward integration. Attitude intensity was used as a measure of importance and was correlated with dissonance as measured by perceived discrepancy between Ss' attitude and those of their parents and close friends. The results suggest that: (a) individuals may markedly disagree with primary reference groups when these groups are perceived to be against the broader norms of his culture, and (b) dissonance may result in an increase as well as a decrease in attitude intensity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring the outcomes of psychotherapy: Findings of the Penn Psychotherapy Project.

Reports analyses of outcome measures obtained from patients, therapists, and clinical observers in the Penn Psychotherapy Project, a 5-yr study of factors that predict outcome in outpatient psychotherapy. The data from the "method factors" study by D. S. Cartwright et al (see record 1963-06833-001) were also reanalyzed. Results in both studies were very similar. Substantial agreement was found among viewpoints about broadly defined treatment outcomes, although distinct viewpoints did clearly exist. Contrary to a common opinion, consensus measures of psychotherapy outcome could be meaningfully defined. Relationships among posttreatment ratings of benefits from therapy and measures of adjustment obtained before and after treatment were explored. A strong relationship was found between the residual gain score and ratings of benefits, suggesting that posttreatment ratings of outcome take account of the fact that the amount of change to be expected depends on the initial level of functioning. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role playing, incentive, and dissonance.

Incentive theory is advanced as more satisfactory than dissonance theory in dealing with attitude change induced through role playing. Incentive theory and dissonance theory yield opposite predictions about attitudinal results of role playing which involves different incentive levels. Experimental studies in this area are reviewed, and alternative explanations are discussed. Results which appear to support dissonance theory can generally be attributed to the arousal of interfering negative affect by increasing reward levels. When opportunity for instigation of such interfering reactions is low, increased reward may lead to more effective biased scanning and thus to more attitude change. Complicating factors are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Involvement and communication discrepancy as determinants of opinion conformity.

"This research studied the relationship between conformity and (a) the extent of the discrepancy between the opinions of a communicator and a recipient and (b) the degree of involvement of the recipient. These variables are central to a dissonance theory analysis of the social influence process, as well as to many previous investigations of attitude change. It can be derived from the theory that opinion change increases with increases in both involvement and discrepancy between communicator and recipient." "… opinion conformity [did increase]… as a function of involvement and discrepancy. This theory with its consideration of the tension-producing effects of these variables, provides a sound framework for the understanding of some of the dynamics of social influence." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding empathy: Integrating counseling, developmental, and social psychology perspectives.

Reviews the literature of social and developmental psychology on empathy theory and research. These 2 subdisciplines differ in their definitions and measures from each other, as well as from the counseling/psychotherapy area. At the same time, all 3 disciplines identify 2 major types of empathy: (a) affective empathy, or feeling the same way as another person, and (b) cognitive or role-taking empathy. Four proposals that result from an integration of these 3 literatures are discussed: First, empathy should be viewed as a multistage interpersonal process that can involve emotional contagion, identification, and role taking. Second, empathy in children is probably different from empathy in adolescence and adulthood. Third, empathy can but does not necessarily lead to helping behaviors. Last, empathy in counseling/psychotherapy can be helpful in certain stages, with certain clients, and for certain goals. However, at other times it can interfere with positive outcomes. (79 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of self-presentation and choice in cognitive dissonance under forced compliance: Necessary or sufficient causes?

In 3 experiments, 114 undergraduates performed counterattitudinal behaviors under choice or no-choice conditions in which the behaviors were public or private and anonymous. Results indicate that self-presentation and choice should be considered as sufficient but not necessary causes of cognitive dissonance. In the absence of self-presentation (private condition), manipulations of perceived choice affected attitude change. In the absence of choice, self-presentation produced attitude change. Supplementary findings suggest that the effects of choice and self-presentation on dissonance were additive and that attitude change was maintained across different audiences among Ss who believed the 2 audiences to be unrelated. The implication that neither choice nor self-presentation is necessary for the occurrence of attitude change suggests a view of cognitive dissonance as multiply determined. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On assessing social psychological theories through the study of individual differences: Template matching and forced compliance.

55 undergraduates were induced to advocate counterattitudinal political positions either relatively close to their own (acceptance) or further from their own (rejection). Significant attitude change toward the advocated position was observed in both conditions. Individual-difference prediction templates were derived from dissonance, self-perception, and self-presentation theories. A template was derived from an informal theory of psychological momentum that assumes Ss sometimes give altered attitude reports because of a tendency to unconsciously continue the advocacy in which they have just been engaged. The self-presentation template was the best predictor of attitude change within the latitude of acceptance; the momentum template was the best predictor within the latitude of rejection, and also overall. Various technical and substantive aspects of the template-matching technique are discussed. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of fees on psychotherapy: What is the evidence?

Reviews theoretical support and research regarding how fees affect psychotherapy. The 2 theories about fee effects, psychoanalysis and cognitive dissonance, have not been appropriately tested. The belief that some fee is necessary for effective psychotherapy has been disputed, but within the limits of brief therapy with particular samples and without the involvement of the therapist in the payment process. Fees appear to present a barrier to patients in entering or continuing therapy, and fees may be more important motivators to therapists than to patients. Currently the effect of fees on psychotherapy outcome is uncertain. There is a need for further research in which sliding-scale fees, private practice settings, and therapies of some duration are used and the role of the therapist in particular is explored. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A conflict-theory interpretation of attitude change in forced compliance situations.

Attitude change following forced compliance was studied in a 4 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 design. Using one of four predesignated issues under two levels of incentive, subjects who had previously expressed either high or low interest in the issue, were invited to make a counter-attitudinal tape-recording. Half of the groups originated their own arguments while half read prepared arguments. Half of the subjects actually engaged in the role playing while half simply committed themselves to the task before answering a post-test questionnaire. It was found that the origins of the argument, role-playing performance, and high incentive levels were potent forces in promoting attitude change. High-interest subjects generally showed more attitude change than low-interest subjects. Both positive and negative relations between magnitude of incentive and attitude change were obtained. These results were found to be consistent with a conflict theory interpretation which relegates cognitive dissonance phenomena to a "special case" interpretation. Some theoretical implications of the results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Towards an understanding of inequity.

A theory of social inequity, with special consideration given to wage inequities is presented. A special case of Festinger's cognitive dissonance, the theory specifies the conditions under which inequity will arise and the means by which it may be reduced or eliminated. Observational field studies supporting the theory and laboratory experiments designed to test certain aspects of it are described. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)