Responsiveness to affective stimuli by obese and normal individuals.

Conducted 2 experiments to test the hypothesis that the obese are more responsive than normals to both positive and negative affective stimuli. In Exp I, obese and normal high school males (N = 46) gave ratings of positively and negatively arousing slides. In Exp II, the behavior of obese and normal children 1 mo-6 yrs old (N = 79) in a positively and a negatively arousing situation was observed. Obese Ss in both experiments responded more strongly than normals to the positive affective stimuli; obese Ss in Exp I responded more strongly than normals to the negative emotional stimulus. A possible reason for the failure of obese Ss in Exp II to respond more strongly than normals to the negative affective stimulus is discussed. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of manifest anxiety to stimulus generalization.

This study examined the relationship between anxiety and stimulus generalization in psychiatric patients. The results suggested that "there is no relationship between MAS [Manifest Anxiety Scale] and stimulus generalization in psychiatric Ss. Moreover, situational factors do not seem important in limiting the generality of such an interpretation. Since the relationships between anxiety and learning phenomena are generally well recognized, these negative results presumably reflect the inadequacy of the Taylor scale as a relevant index of anxiety levels in psychiatric subjects." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Sensitivity" of depressed individuals to aversive stimuli.

Conducted 2 studies to test the hypothesis that depressed individuals are more sensitive to aversive stimuli than nondepressed individuals. Undergraduates were classified into depressed, psychiatric control, and normal control groups (n = 24) on the basis of therapist ratings, interview techniques, and MMPI subscale scores. Autonomic response (skin resistance) to aversive stimulation was studied both before, during, and after Ss were given a mild electric shock. Adaptation over repeated presentations of the same aversive situation was also studied. It was found that depressed Ss showed a significantly greater autonomic response during, but not before or after, the presentation of the aversive stimulus. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Creativity and schizophrenia: An equivalence of cognitive processing.

Two tests of creativity were given to 10 paranoid and 10 nonparanoid schizophrenics, 10 nonpsychotic psychiatric controls, and 10 normal Ss. Ss were aged between 18 and 50 yrs. Scores on vocabulary and similarities tests, as well as education, medication, marital status, socioeconomic background, and age, were examined. Results indicate that nonparanoid schizophrenics were significantly more creative than paranoids and psychiatric controls on one creativity measure, a graded level measure of the Alternate Uses Test. Also, nonparanoid schizophrenics produced a significantly higher percentage of "highly creative" responses than did normals. Nonparanoid schizophrenics also scored higher than the other groups on the Welsh Figure Preference Test, but this finding was found to be related to age rather than to schizophrenia. The superior performance of the nonparanoid schizophrenic is discussed in terms of the encouragement that a supportive, nonjudgmental testing environment provides. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sensitivity of paranoid patients to nonverbal cues.

To test the hypothesis of a special sensitivity on the part of paranoid patients to nonverbal cues, 2 videotapes were prepared for viewing by 24 hospitalized paranoid patients and 24 normal Ss. Half of each group saw a videotape of genuine stimuli, and half saw a videotape of simulated stimuli. The stimuli consisted of 40 6-sec shots of the same 4 persons on each tape. The faces of the persons were shown as they watched 2 lights serving as signals. For the genuine tape, electric shock was administered to the stimulus person at the cessation of a red light, but none after a white light; for the simulated tape, stimulus Ss posed their expectation. Viewing Ss judged whether, at each presentation, the stimulus person on the videotape expected or did not expect to receive an electric shock. Paranoid Ss demonstrated significantly higher accuracy than normals for genuine stimuli, while normal Ss were significantly more accurate than patients for simulated stimuli. Normal Ss were more accurate for simulated stimuli than they were for genuine stimuli, while patients were not. Data support the hypothesis. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anxiety, restraint, and eating behavior.

Hypothesized that individual differences in eating behavior based on the distinction between obese and normal Ss could be demonstrated within a population of normal Ss classified as to the extent of restraint chronically exercised with respect to eating. Ss were 42 female college students. Restrained Ss resembled the obese behaviorally, and unrestrained Ss resembled normals. This demonstration was effected in the context of a test of the psychosomatic hypothesis of obesity. Results indicate that although some individuals may eat more when anxious, there is little empirical support for the notion that eating serves to reduce anxiety. An explanation for this apparent inconsistency is offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory in sub-clinical obsessive-compulsive checkers

In a series of experiments we extended the research on possible memory deficits in subclinical obsessive-compulsive Ss who reported excessive checking. Using a variety of memory tests we compared 20 subclinical checkers to 20 Ss without obsessive-compulsive symptomatology. Contrary to hypothesis, checkers remembered self-generated words better than read words just as much as did normals, but they were more likely than normals to report thinking they had studied words that, in fact, had not been on the study list. Further, they more often confused whether they read or generated the words at study. Checkers did not appear to perseverate on already-recalled words on repeated free recall tests any more than did normals. However, checkers remembered fewer actions overall and more often misremembered whether they had performed, observed, or written these actions. Such memory deficits may contribute to the development of excessive checking.     

Memorization of "unrelated" word strings by young nonpsychotic schizophrenics.

Used multiple word lists with low contextual constraints to examine nonorganizational processes or "strategies" which might be operating in single-trial free recall by schizophrenics. Ss were 20 young nonpsychotic schizophrenics and 20 normal controls. The schizophrenics, as compared to the normals, showed limited storage capacities of the primary and secondary memories, vulnerability to intrusion, slow response time, inefficiency in utilizing stimulus contiguity for organization, and consequential recall deficit. These findings, with those from previous investigations, suggest that both organizational and nonorganizational dysfunctions may underlie the schizophrenics' poor performance. The possibility that nonorganizational processes may be integral parts of mnemonic organization is discussed. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Studies in efficiency: Semantic generalization in schizophrenia.

This study examined the hypothesis that schizophrenics would generalize a conditioned GSR response relatively more to the homonym of a CS and relatively less to the synonym than normals. The specific prediction was that the difference in the magnitude of response to synonyms and homonyms (RS - RH) would be greater for normals than for schizophrenics. The Ss were 16 normals and 16 chronic schizophrenics. The synonyms elicited a larger response than the homonyms with the majority of normal Ss. The opposite results were obtained with the schizophrenics. An analysis of variance clearly supported the hypothesized interaction between the "normal-schizophrenic" variable and generalization to synonyms and homonyms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some extraordinary facts about obese humans and rats.

Examined similarities between experimental findings with obese human Ss and lesioned hyperphagic rats. In comparison to normals, obese Ss (a) eat more of a good- and less of a bad-tasting food; (b) eat fewer meals/day, eat more/meal, and eat more rapidly; (c) react more emotionally; (d) eat more when food is easy to procure and less when it is difficult; (e) do not regulate food consumption when preloaded with solids, but do when preloaded with liquids; and (f) are less active. N. Mrosovosky's theory that the ventromedial hypothalamus is functionally quiescent in obese Ss is discussed. The function of the hypothalamus is examined. It is hypothesized that obese Ss are stimulus-bound. Experiments reveal that obese Ss (a) do better on recall tests, (b) respond faster with fewer errors on complex RT tasks, (c) are more distractible, and (d) work harder for food when food cues are prominent. Reexamining the activity levels of Ss, it was found that beyond a given stimulus intensity, Ss are more reactive than normals. Difficulties with the comparison and formulation are noted. (38 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learned helplessness and judgments of control.

A central hypothesis of learned helplessness theory is that exposure to noncontingency produces a reduced ability to perceive response–outcome relations (the postulated "cognitive deficit"). To test this hypothesis, 30 undergraduates were exposed to a typical helplessness induction task and then asked to make judgments of the amount of control their responses exerted over a designated outcome (the onset of a light). An additional 30 undergraduates served as a no-treatment control group. Support for the postulated cognitive deficit would be found if Ss who experienced the induction underestimated the relation between their responses and outcomes. Results, however, demonstrate that induction Ss made higher and more accurate judgments of control than Ss in the control group. This finding clearly fails to support the postulated cognitive deficit and highlights the need for other direct tests of the basic hypotheses of helplessness theory. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An empirical test of Myklebust's cognitive structure hypotheses for 70 reading-disabled children.

A Wherry-Wherry hierarchical factor solution was obtained on WISC subtest intercorrelations for normal and reading-disabled Ss to test 3 cognitive structure hypotheses derived from the formulations of H. Myklebust, M. Bannochie, and J. Killen. Comparison of the ability structure for these groups provided strong support for 2 of the 3 hypotheses. First, the ability structure of reading-disabled Ss was distinguishable from that of normals by less effective ability integration. Second, the ability structure of reading-disabled Ss was distinguishable from that of normals by a different overall ability arrangement. For normals the factor structure consisted of a strong general factor and 2 subgeneral factors corresponding to the verbal-educational ability and spacial-perceptual ability of P. Vernon's (see PA, Vol 49:879) hierarchical paradigm. For reading-disabled Ss the factor structure consisted of a weak general factor, 2 subgeneral factors, and 4 primary factors. However, communality estimates for reading-disabled and normal Ss were comparable, thus failing to support the ability organization hypothesis. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual symbolism and the variables of sex and personality integration.

The purpose was to reassess the hypothesis of sexual symbolism using stimulus figures similar to those presented in Levy's study (see 28: 8696). The hypotheses were: (1) when asked to designate stimulus objects as male or female, Ss respond to elongated, pointed, or penetrating objects as male, and to hollow, rounded, or enclosing objects as female; and (2) psychiatric patients identify these objects as male or female, respectively, less frequently than nonpsychiatric patients. 20 psychiatric patients and 20 college students, each group made up of an equal number of males and females, served as Ss. Both hypotheses were confirmed at significant levels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schizophrenic and normal response patterns to "aversive" and "neutral" associations in two paired-associate paradigms.

3 groups of Ss (hospitalized psychiatric patients, hospitalized nonpsychiatric patients, and college students) were required to learn 2 classes of paired associates—neutral and aversive by 2 methods of presentation of the material: (a) after the traditional presentation of the stimulus word, S was required to anticipate the correct response; (b) S viewed 2 words in the window and had to select the correct one. The results indicated that in general it was much more difficult to learn the "aversive" words than the neutral ones, and hospital patients as a group had more difficulty than the college Ss. However, sensitivity to group differences was enhanced when S was required to use the 2nd rather than the traditional 1st method. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses to "neutral" pronoun presentations and the development of sex-biased responding.

Investigated whether 36 kindergarten and 36 1st-grade children, like college students, would give male-biased responses to a "he" presentation and examined how Ss would respond to the use of "they" and "he or she" pronoun presentations. The effects of pronoun use on memory were also investigated, as were possible sex differences in responding. Each S was assigned to 1 of 3 pronoun presentation groups, each of which contained an equal number of girls and boys. Ss in the different groups listened to the exact same story except that Group I Ss heard the pronoun "they" used throughout the story, Group 2 Ss heard "she" or "he" used throughout the story, and Group 3 Ss heard the pronoun "he" throughout the story. Ss were then asked to retell the story and were shown pictures of a boy and a girl and asked to indicate which one the story was about. Results support the pronomial dominance theory of pronoun functioning for young children. Results also support the hypothesis that boys initially use a self-imaging response to neutral presentations. The time of transition away from this response was identified as the 1st-grade level. There was no indication that kindergarten or 1st-grade girls use the self-imagining approach. The "they" presentation appeared to be the most neutral. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulus condition self-selection by males in the interaction of locus of control and skill–chance situations.

Divided 218 undergraduates into 3 groups on the basis of their scores on Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. Ss completed 2 achievement-type tests (the stimulus conditions), the 1st described as a test of skill, the 2nd as a test of chance. Ss then selected which type of test they would prefer for their 3rd test (stimulus condition self-selection). Thereafter, Ss had an opportunity to cheat by changing test answers. As predicted, Ss with an external locus of control were more likely to select a test of chance, whereas middles and internals were more likely to select a test of skill. Ss who selected a test of skill were more likely to cheat on a test of skill, whereas Ss who selected a test of chance were more likely to cheat on a test of chance. Results imply that behavior is both a function of self-selecting stimulus conditions and a function of personal factors. A distinction is drawn between the fundamental attributionist error (failure to consider stimulus condition self-selection) and the complementary fundamental attribution error. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Abstract thinking and social behavior in schizophrenia.

20 normal and 24 schizophrenic Ss were presented a series of cards, each bearing a stimulus word and 2 response words variously related in meaning to the stimulus. The Ss were asked to select the response word which they felt to be "closer in meaning" to the stimulus word. The results confirmed, at the .01 level, the hypotheses that (a) normals will exceed schizophrenics in the ability to select, as most similar in meaning to a given word, that word which is related to it in an essential abstract way; and (b) within a schizophrenic group, the above ability will be positively correlated with adequacy of everyday social interaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pavlovian galvanic skin response conditioning in overweight and normal weight women.

20 overweight and 20 normal weight female undergraduates underwent habituation, classical conditioning, and extinction of the GSR. Overweight Ss were consistently more responsive to the CS (tone) during all 3 phases of the study and were somewhat more responsive to the UCS (shock). Rates of response attenuation and enhancement, however, were not different during any phase. Results are generally consistent with research which demonstrates that overweight Ss are more externally stimulus bound than normals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical patterns of defense as revealed in visual recognition thresholds.

To test the relationship between characteristic mode of cognitive reactivity to conflict-arousing stimuli in a laboratory situation as compared with life in general, Ss (adult male hospitalized psychiatric patients between 21 and 45) were placed in one of 3 categories, which reflected characteristic modes of dealing with conflictual ideas and feelings (externalizers, internalizers, acting-outers). Ss were then presented with visual stimuli (words and pictures) geared to heighten conflict arousal; capacity for recognition was measured by the level of illumination required for identification of the stimulus. The results indicated that externalizers and acter-outer demonstrated lower thresholds of recognition for conflictarousing (sexual, aggressive, dependent) stimuli than for neutral ones, and internalizers revealed higher thresholds. No relationship was found between specific conflict area or psychiatric diagnosis and perceptual mode. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A prediction of patterns of schizophrenic error resulting from semantic generalization.

Conducted a study with 2 groups of 26 male schizophrenics and normal psychiatric aides (mean age = 45 yr) to test predictions derived from a theory of disordered thought by L. J. Chapman, J. P. Chapman, and G. A. Miller (see PA, Vol. 39:10059) concerning the conditions under which schizophrenic Ss exhibit excessive generalization errors. The theory assumes that both the schizophrenic and normal are biased toward responding to words in terms of the words' strongest aspects of meaning, but that schizophrenics are more strongly biased toward this than are normals. Ss were instructed to indicate by pressing buttons marked "yes" and "no" whether or not test words presented in serial fashion on a memory drum had appeared on a previous training list. "Yes" responses to test words not appearing on a previous training list were the measures of generalization errors. The predictions were supported by the finding that schizophrenics made significantly more errors to words on the test list that shared strong meaning responses (p