Influence of the flow velocity on a Kovasznay type vorticity probe

The output signal of a Kovasznay type vorticity probe is in first-order approximation proportional to the longitudinal component of the vorticity omegax= partial differentialw/ partial differentialy- partial differentialv/ partial differentialz and does not depend on the two transverse components of the flow velocity v, w. An experimental investigation of the influence of all three fluctuating velocity components on the longitudinal vorticity signal showed that their influence may not be neglected. The error in the probe response caused by the longitudinal component of the flow velocity was easily corrected using the instantaneous longitudinal velocity component and digital measuring techniques. On the other hand, the error caused by the two transverse velocity components could not be corrected. The contamination of the vorticity signal produced by the two transverse velocity components has been calculated by considering first- and second-order terms. The agreement between the calculations and experimental measurements is good. It is concluded that in a turbulent flow field this probe cannot be used without the simultaneous knowledge of the instantaneous transverse velocity components.     

Calibration of electrodiffusion probes for turbulent flow measurements

Calibration of electrodiffusion (ED) probes with respect to the wall velocity gradient measurements has been experimentally studied in a fully developed turbulent channel flow over the Reynolds number range 14000–23000. In steady state conditions, direct calibration concerning the mean wall velocity gradient can be provided using simultaneous transient and steady state diffusion limiting current measurements. Indirect calibration of the ED probes regarding the turbulent fluctuation has been undertaken using a spectral analysis performed with probes of different size and geometry. This indirect calibration method has been supported using the measurements of thermo-dependence of molecular diffusivity. In this case, only one ED probe can be used for calibration. Dynamic calibration provides necessary information about critical longitudinal dimension of ED probes. When the longitudinal dimension of the probes exceeds the critical length, the probes becomes sensitive to the normal fluctuation as well. This fact has been confirmed using different orientation of the rectangular ED probe with respect to the flow direction.     

Effect of convex wall curvature on three-dimensional behavior of film cooling jet

The flow characteristics of film coolant issuing into turbulent boundary layer developing on a convex surface have been investigated by means of flow visualization and three-dimensional velocity measurement. The Schlieren optical system with a spark light source was adopted to visualize the jet trajectory injected at 35° and 90° inclination angles. A five-hole directional pressure probe was used to measure three-dimensional mean velocity components at the injection angle of 35°. Flow visualization shows that at the 90° injection, the jet flow is greatly changed near the jet exit due to strong interaction with the crossflow. On the other hand, the balance between radial pressure gradient and centrifugal force plays an important role to govern the jet flow at the 35° injection. The velocity measurement shows that at a velocity ratio of 0.5, the curvature stabilizes downstream flow, which results in weakening of the bound vortex structure. However, the injectant flow is separated from the convex wall gradually, and the bound vortex maintains its structure far downstream at a velocity ratio of 1.98 with two pairs of counter rotating vortices.     

Heterodyne laser-Doppler line-sensor for highly resolved velocity measurements of shear flows

We report on the application of a heterodyne laser-Doppler line-sensor for spatially highly resolved shear flow measurements. The line-sensor employs a wavelength-division-multiplexing (WDM) technique, which generates a measurement volume with convergent and divergent fringes for two laser wavelengths, respectively. The evaluation of the ratio of the resulting two Doppler frequencies yields the particle velocity and position inside the measurement volume with a resolution of a few micrometers. A line sensor with directional discrimination was realized by using a heterodyne technique. The measurement signal is generated in the intermediate frequency band, allowing the evaluation of small velocities with high accuracy. We report on the measurement of laminar boundary layers and for the determination of the wall shear stress. Good agreement was obtained between the measured velocity and the Blasius solution.     

Evaluation of hot-film,dual optical and Pitot tube probes for liquid–liquid two-phase flow measurements

An experimental study of kerosene–water upward two-phase flow in a vertical pipe was carried out using hot-film, dual optical and Pitot tube probes to measure the water, kerosene drops and mixture velocities. Experiments were conducted in a vertical pipe of 77.8 mm inner diameter at 4.2 m from the inlet (L/D=54). The tests were carried out for constant superficial water velocities of 0.29, 0.59 and 0.77 m/s (flow rates = 83, 167 and 220 l/min) and volume fractions of 4.2%, 9.2%, 18.6% and 28.2%. The Fluent 6.3.26 was used to model the single and two-phase flow and to reproduce the results for the experimental study. Two methods were used to evaluate the accuracy of the probes for the measurement of the velocities of water, drops and mixture for two-phase flow: (i) comparison of measured local velocities with predictions from the CFD simulation; (ii) comparison between the area-averaged velocities calculated from the integration of the local measurements of water, drops and mixture velocities and velocities calculated from flow meters’ measurements.The results for single phase flow measured using Pitot tube and hot-film probe agree well with CFD predictions. In the case of two-phase flow, the water and drops velocities were measured by hot-film and dual optical probes respectively. The latter was also used to measure the volume fraction. These three measured parameters were used to calculate the mixture velocity. The Pitot tube was also used to measure the mixture velocity by applying the same principle used for single phase flow velocity. Overall the mixture local velocity measured by Pitot tube and that calculated from hot-film and dual optical probe measurements agreed well with Fluent predictions. The discrepancy between the mixture area-averaged velocity and velocity calculated from flow meters was less than 10% except for one test case. It is concluded that the combined hot-film and optical approach can be used for water and drop velocity measurements with good accuracy for the flow conditions considered in this study. The Pitot tube can also be used for the measurement of mixture velocities for conditions of mixture velocities greater than 0.4 m/s. The small discrepancy between the predictions and experimental data from the present study and literature demonstrated that both instrumentation and CFD simulations have the potential for two-phase flow investigation and industrial applications.     

An investigation into the effects of installation on the performance of insertion flowmeters

An electromagnetic and a turbine insertion flowmeter were tested in three different flow conditions inside a 0.590-m bore pipe inserted in the National Engineering Laboratory (NEL) large water flow measurement facility. The results were compared with velocity measurements obtained from a laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV). The advantage of using such a reference measurement is that LDV is non-intrusive and does not affect the velocity profile itself.Of the meters tested, one was supplied with a whole meter calibration factor and the other was supplied with a calibration factor for the D/2 position.For both meters, application of the respective manufacturer's blockage correction improved the velocity measurements, reducing the differences between the LDV and corrected insertion meter measurements and the difference between the integrated insertion meter measurements and the gravimetric measurements.Swirling and skew flow profiles were generated by the installation of the NEL designed swirl generator and flow disturber, respectively. Neither of these disturbed profiles affected the performance of either of the meters in terms of accuracy of measurement compared with the LDV readings. The profiles themselves, however, changed the velocities at the D/8 and 7D/8 points, making single point estimates of the mean velocity inappropriate. A complete 13-point traverse, integrated using the method of cubics as described in BS 1042 [1] (Section 2.3: Measurement of fluid flow in closed conduits, 1992), gave acceptable estimates of mean velocity in both swirling and skew flow for both probes.     

Point-velocity methods for flow-rate measurements in asymmetric pipe flow

Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) is characterized by its ability to determine local fluid velocities with high accuracy. Therefore, LDV may also be used for precise flow-rate measurements of turbulent flow in circular ducts. The uncertainty of the measurement depends mainly on the asymmetry of the axial velocity distribution and on the point-velocity method chosen to estimate the flow-rate. LDV-measurements in conjunction with velocity-area methods have been performed under different asymmetric flow conditions yielding errors in the range of one per cent. The experimental data have been transformed into analytical flow profiles, in order to investigate combinations of single-point measurements. As a result, a new multi-point method with variable centre-point factor is introduced, that reduces both the effort and uncertainty in the measurement.     

四级低速轴流压气机端壁区流动的实验研究

在四级低速大尺度轴流压气机试验台上,利用自行设计加工的十孔梳状附面层探针、四孔探针以及埋入高频响Kulite传感器的动态探针,针对端壁区流动展开了详细的流场测量。从附面层探针测量结果中能清晰识别出附面层区和主流区;获得了该压气机进口的附面层位移厚度、动量损失厚度、能量损失厚度及堵塞系数,且实验结果表明,采用平板紊流附面层公式能较好地进行附面层厚度的估算;采用位移机构带动四孔探针测得的第三级压气机转子进出口流场速度结果显示,受轮毂旋转作用,转子后的下端壁区附面层厚度明显要小于上端壁区附面层厚度;动态探针测量结果能较为明显地识别出叶尖泄漏涡的发展轨迹,且随着流量系数的减小,叶片尖部最大负荷点从尾缘向前缘移动,导致叶尖泄漏涡起始点前移。     

冷却对换热器内湍流流动的影响

采用IFA300恒温式热线风速仪对换热器热气通道内的湍流流动进行了测试研究。利用一维探针测试的结果表明:传热边界条件对被测区域的量纲一平均速度的分布影响很小,而传热边界条件不同对湍流度的分布有一定的影响。结合两维探针的测试结果分析说明了边界受冷却时,近壁区气体体积变化是加剧湍流脉动的主要原因。     

Determination of thermal plume thickness using thermocouple cross correlation coefficient decay

A methodology to measure the thickness of a thermal boundary layer by cross correlating the signal from thermocouples is presented. It is shown that measurement of temperature, velocity, and boundary layer thickness is achievable using a single sensor utilizing three thermocouples rather than the typical two thermocouples used in the cross correlation velocimetry technique discussed in literature. The methodology is validated using experiments performed in two laboratory scale devices: a heated turbulent jet and a variable diameter natural gas burner. Experimental measurements are compared with theoretical calculations, and uncertainty in the measurement is discussed.     

Two-component laser Doppler anemometer for measurement of velocity and turbulent shear stress near prosthetic heart valves

The velocity and turbulent shear stress measured in the immediate vicinity of prosthetic heart valves play a vital role in the design and evaluation of these devices. In the past hot wire/film and one-component laser Doppler anemometer (LDA) systems were used extensively to obtain these measurements. Hot wire/film anemometers, however, have some serious disadvantages, including the inability to measure the direction of the flow, the disturbance of the flow field caused by the probe, and the need for frequent calibration. One-component LDA systems do not have these problems, but they cannot measure turbulent shear stresses directly. Since these measurements are essential and are not available in the open literature, a two-component LDA system for measuring velocity and turbulent shear stress fields under pulsatile flow conditions was assembled under an FDA contract. The experimental methods used to create an in vitro data base of velocity and turbulent shear stress fields in the immediate vicinity of prosthetic heart valves of various designs in current clinical use are also discussed.     

Calibration of laser Doppler vibrometer and laser interferometers in high-frequency regions using electro-optical modulator

We proposed a new primary calibration method of a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) using the optical modulated excitation of an electro-optical modulator and validated this approach by comparing mechanical modulated excitation with homodyne laser interferometer at the National Metrology Institute of Japan (NMIJ). The velocity sensitivity of the LDV was evaluated with the uncertainty budget at a high-frequency range up to 1 MHz, which is indicated as the upper limit of 50 kHz in ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 16063–41. As the results, we confirmed that velocity sensitivities between optical and mechanical modulated excitations are flat within their uncertainty from 100 Hz up to 1 MHz. Moreover, in order to evaluate the accurate phase shift of the accelerometer up to 20 kHz using optical modulated excitation, we also revealed the reliability of two time shifts between homodyne and heterodyne laser interferometers.     

A new multiprobe method of roundness measurements

This paper presents a new multiprobe method for roundness measurements called the mixed method. In this method, displacements at two points on a cylindrical workpiece and an angle at one of the two points are simultaneously monitored by two probes. The differential output of the probes cancels the effect of the spindle error, and deconvolving the differential data yields the correct roundness error. The mixed method is compared to the traditional 3-point method with respect to the transfer function and resolution. Unlike the 3-point method, the mixed method can completely separate the roundness error and the spindle error, and can measure high-frequency components regardless of the probe distance. Resolution can also be improved throughout the entire frequency domain by increasing angular separation of the probes. An optical sensor specifically suited to the mixed method is designed and used to make roundness measurements. A fiber coupler and single-mode fibers are used in the sensor to divide a light beam from a laser diode into two beams, resulting in a compact sensor with good thermal drift characteristics. The displacement meter of the sensor is based on the imaging system principle and has a resolution of 0.1 μm. The angle meter is based on the principle of autocollimation and has a resolution of 0.5 in. A measurement system is constructed to realize measurements of roundness by using the optical sensor. Experimental results confirming the effectiveness of the mixed method for roundness measurements are also presented in this paper.     

用激光外差技术高精度测量目标速度

搭建了外差探测实验平台,分别选用漫反射目标及类简谐运动模型作匀转速运动及变速运动的测量目标,应用激光外差探测技术实现了对匀转速运动及变速运动物体的速度测量.在匀转速测量过程中,同时采用外差探测法和振幅调制法测量了漫反射目标正负两个方向转动的速度,共得到133组不同的转速结果.通过调整实验系统,亦实现了对类简谐运动目标的...     

6 km自容式湍流观测剖面仪设计与试验研究

目前大部分湍流观测剖面仪的观测范围在1 km以浅。为获取深海湍流数据,探究深海动力过程演变机制与能量耗散过程,研制6 km自容式湍流观测剖面仪。从湍流观测应用的翼型剪切流传感器测量原理出发,分析约束深海剖面仪设计的关键技术,开展了深海剖面仪稳定水动力布局设计、耐压6 km的轻量化结构设计、下潜速度分析与控制设计。观测传感器集成微结构的双PNS系列翼型剪切流传感器与FP07快速温度传感器,实现了深海湍流两个维度下湍动能耗散与热耗散的同步、高速观测,采用模块化的设计思想完成自容式湍流观测硬件系统的设计。通过性能检测试验,剖面仪可满足6 km应用,下潜速度线性可调范围0.4~0.9 m/s,验证了剖面仪结构设计的可行性;海上试验,并与MSS90进行比测,剖面仪测量湍流脉动剪切变化趋势与MSS90相同,计算的湍流剪切波数谱与Nasmyth理论谱在截止波数前非常吻合,相同深度的湍动能耗散率与MSS90为同一数量级,验证了深海6 km自容式湍流观测剖面仪湍流测量的准确性。     

A recursive interpolation algorithm for particle tracking velocimetry

A new type of interpolation algorithm for particle tracking velocimetry is proposed. The algorithm is established based on a combination of ellipsoidal differential equations, i.e. a recursive process from a lower to a higher order interpolation. Each equation is solved as a boundary value problem by using the discrete velocity vector information as boundary conditions. In this paper the performance of the interpolation scheme, such as errors and cross correlations, is examined using the Taylor–Green vortex flow and isotropic turbulent flow. The examination results reveal that the recursive process from linear to hexagonal interpolation provides the best reconstruction in comparison to the single process. A quantitative evaluation is also carried out for integral and derivative information of the velocity vector, such as stream function and vorticity.     

Laser vibrometry measurements of an optically smooth rotating spindle

Laser doppler vibrometry (LDV) is a well-established non-contact method, commonly used for vibration measurements on static objects. However, the method has limitations when applied to rotating objects. The LDV signal will contain periodically repeated speckle noise and a mix of vibration velocity components.In this paper, the crosstalk between vibration velocity components in laser vibrometry measurements of a rotating dummy tool in a milling machine spindle is studied. The spindle is excited by an active magnetic bearing (AMB) and the response is measured by LDV in one direction and inductive displacement sensors in two orthogonal directions simultaneously. The work shows how the LDV crosstalk problem can be avoided if the measurement surface is optically smooth, hence the LDV technique can be used when measuring spindle dynamics.     

Probe and method for simultaneous measurements of 'true' instantaneous temperature and three velocity components in turbulent flow

In the measurement of turbulent flows the need has always existed to obtain correct instantaneous values of temperature and three components of velocity at a particular point. Many proposed lengthy approximate correction methods that attempt to account for 'nonlinear' effects (cross contamination between different quantities) in hot-wire measurements cannot be considered satisfactory. The availability of powerful digital computers for theoretical and experimental studies has placed pressure on experimentalists to develop better probes and methods. This paper attempts to answer these pressures by describing the development of a special four-wire probe and a method of processing the obtained signals. The use of four 0.625-microm-diam sensors makes the probe practically interference free. The processing method is based on the simultaneous solution of four complete nonlinear response equations for the sensors, yielding in principle exact instantaneous values of velocity components and temperature. Additional features of the processing method include: instantaneous full correction for tunnel free stream velocity and temperature fluctuations, first-order correction for dc drifts of the signals during data acquisition, subtraction of all 60-Hz related noise, and correction for streamwise displacement of sensors based on instantaneous streamwise velocity.     

Effects of prong-wire interferences in dual hot-wire probes on the measurements of unsteady flows and turbulence in low-speed axial fans

Support needles of Dual Hot Wire (DHW) anemometers induce significant inaccuracies for flow angle and turbulence measurements in the case of X-array probes with prongs perpendicular to the flow plane. At certain angular ranges of the incident flow, a wake interference is established between the sensors which leads to a practical limitation of the device. In the case of turbomachinery environments, this is even more critical due to the inherent unsteadiness of the flow direction rotor downstream.In the present work, the measurement deviation caused by hot-wire probes operated under interference effects has been studied and evaluated, in both steady and unsteady conditions, especially for turbomachinery flows. New designs of DHW probes without prong-wire interference effects in their operative angular ranges were developed for validation. In particular, both V-type and Z-type interference-free probes are compared to a classic X-type probe susceptible for prong-wire interferences. Firstly, a steady calibration is performed to show the baseline deviation of the X-array probe in the measurement of the velocity magnitude, the flow angle and the turbulence intensity. Typical errors up to 10–13% in velocity, 5.5–7 deg in angle and 1.5–2.5 points overestimation in turbulence levels are observed. Also, unacceptable inaccuracies are found in the turbulence spectra of the measurements.Following, the impact of the interference for unsteady flow measurements is highlighted comparing the performance of the three probes within the single stage of a low-speed axial fan. The unsteady measurements of the X-array probe have revealed similar averaged discrepancies to those observed in the steady performance, but the instantaneous deviations can be as high as a 20% in velocity and 16–18 deg in flow angle in those regions (rotor wakes) with large unsteady velocity gradients and turbulence generation. Turbulence intensity measured in the rotor wakes is also excessively higher.     

Fibreoptical spatial filter velocimeter for measurement of local liquid velocity

The spatial filtering velocimetry is the basis of the new optical hydrometric measuring probe. Like a laser Doppler velocimeter, the hydrometric probe determines the velocity of tracer particles in the liquid flow. Essential parts of the hydrometric probe are a differential fibreoptical spatial filter and an illumination source. The tracer particles are imaged onto the spatial filter by a shadow projection with a parallel light beam. The hydrometric probe can be used for velocity and flow measurements in pipes and river flows. The technique permits the design of robust and low cost optical hydrometric probe which can be used for different hydrometric applications.