Development of corn starch-gum bread for phenylketonuria patients

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited metabolic disease resulting from an enzyme defect that leads to failure to utilize phenylalanine and it is the most common aminoacidopathy in Turkey. There are a considerable number of individuals suffering from PKU and they need special food formulations, but the choice of special foods is limited for these people. Since the bread is the staple food in Turkey, the primary aim of this study was to develop bread formulation and procedure for PKU patients by using materials available in Turkey. To be able to produce low phenylalanine starch-gum bread, five different commercial food grade gums were added to the corn starch at 1, 2, and 3% addition levels. The addition of surfactant brought about remarkable changes in the starch dough. Loaf of the best overall quality was produced with one of the gums (xanthan gum and carrageenans mixture) at the addition level of 2%, water addition level of 105%, the final proof time of 110 min and the temperature of 30 degrees C when compared with the other gum breads. As a result, a basic formula and procedure for preparing a desirable corn starch-gum bread was reported for PKU patients.     

玉米面包的研制

介绍了玉米面包的生产工艺及操作参数；讨论了加水量、酵母用量、食品胶、乳化剂等因素对面包质量的影响；分析得出了玉米面包生产的适宜配方为：玉米粉100％、水75％左右、酵母1．2％左右、糖20％、油脂3％、鲜鸡蛋5％、食盐0．8％、黄原胶0．5％、瓜尔豆胶0．2％、单甘酯0．5％、蔗糖酯0．3％。     

Exploring the applicability of tamarind gum for making gluten-free rice bread

The present study explored the applicability of tamarind gum in making gluten-free rice bread. Hydration properties of gums and pasting properties of rice flour with the gums were analyzed with Rapid ViscoAnalyzer. Batter properties and bread quality characteristics of rice bread containing gums were analyzed. Except for guar and xanthan gum, the final viscosity after hydration of other gums and the pasting properties of rice flour with the gums were similar. The batter properties and the quality of rice bread containing tamarind gum were equivalent or superior to those containing other gums. Cross-sections of rice bread showed that addition of tamarind gum and pectin resulted in a fine appearance, but pectin may not be preferred due to its lower pH causing unpleasant sour taste and smell of the rice bread containing the gum. Therefore, tamarind gum can be a useful gum for applying to make gluten-free rice bread.     

皂荚糖胶对玉米淀粉老化性质的影响及体系的水分分布

以玉米淀粉为原料,用流变分析、食品物性分析、差示扫描量热分析、低场核磁共振成像分析等研究冷藏过程中不同含量（相对玉米淀粉干基质量的1%、3%、5%和7%）皂荚糖胶对玉米淀粉老化特性的影响。动态流变时间扫描结果表明：随着老化时间的延长,玉米淀粉的弹性模量增加,皂荚糖胶的加入使复配体系弹性模量的变化率减小,一定程度上抑制玉米淀粉的短期老化;凝胶强度实验表明：随着冷藏时间的延长,玉米淀粉凝胶体系的硬度值增加,皂荚糖胶的加入使玉米淀粉形成质地更柔软的凝胶,硬度值明显降低;差示扫描量热测定结果表明：随着皂荚糖胶含量的增加,复配体系的老化率逐渐减小。用低场核磁水分运动性实验方法,通过5%皂荚糖胶加入前后淀粉凝胶中自由水、结合水和不易流动水含量的对比证实该胶对凝胶的水分分布有较大的影响;该研究能进一步丰富植物胶体对淀粉老化性能影响的理论。     

Rapid Visco-Analyzer (RVA) Pasting Profiles of Wheat,Corn, Waxy Corn,Tapioca and Amaranth Starches (A. hypochondriacus and A cruentus) in the Presence of Konjac Flour,Gellan, Guar,Xanthan and Locust Bean Gums

The Rapid Visco-Analyzer (RVA) 20min test was used to study the effects of different levels of konjac flour, guar, gellan, xanthan and locust bean gums on starch cooking properties. Wheat, corn, waxy corn, tapioca and A. hypochondriacus and A. cruentus starches were affected to different degrees by different levels of the gums. Peak viscosity increased at the higher gum concentrations, especially with locust bean gum at the 0.4 g level. The increase in viscosity was more pronounced with wheat and corn starches than with waxy corn and tapioca starches which consist mostly of highly branched amylopectin thus preventing close physical association between molecules. Amaranth starches showed much lower viscosity with all the gums than the other starches. Peak viscosity, time to reach the peak and maximum setback viscosity were affected by the gums. The increase in viscosity of starch/hydrocolloid systems is due to the release of amy-lose and low molecular weight amylopectin which promotes the formation of polymer complexes and significantly adds to the viscosity of the system.     

Influence of pH and hydrocolloids addition on yam (Dioscorea alata) starch pastes stability

Yam tubers (Dioscorea alata) are a non-traditional starch source that could be used as food ingredient. The stability of yam starch pastes (6/100 g suspension) submitted to different pH conditions during gelatinization and the effect of hydrocolloids addition (guar and xanthan gums) on starch syneresis under refrigeration were analyzed. Changes in pH (3, 5, 6) or the addition of gums (0.1–0.5/100 g suspension) did not affect the starch gelatinization temperature nor the gelatinization enthalpy as determined by differential scanning calorimetry. Rheological behavior was characterized by amylograph profiles and oscillatory rheometry. Amylograms showed that yam starch pastes maintained a high viscosity under heat treatment and mechanical stirring in neutral to slightly acidic conditions. Brabender viscosity increased when gums were added; the effect of guar gum on viscosity was more marked than that of xanthan gum. During refrigerated storage exudate production was observed of pastes without gums. Xanthan gum, at a concentration of 0.5/100 g suspension, showed higher effectiveness than guar gum to reduce exudate production during refrigerated storage. The addition of hydrocolloids could allow yam starch to be used in foods requiring low temperatures.     

食品胶协同干热处理对马铃薯淀粉理化特性的影响

为了改善马铃薯淀粉加工特性,选用瓜尔胶、羧甲基纤维素钠和黄原胶3种食品胶分别与马铃薯淀粉复配后进行干热处理,研究食品胶协同干热处理对马铃薯淀粉糊化、老化和流变特性的影响。研究发现,中3种食品胶协同干热处理均能够降低糊化温度与糊化焓,并且均能增强淀粉体系稳定性,使其呈现出弹性流体性质,不仅如此还均能提高淀粉糊热稳定性以及耐剪切能力,此外均能增强淀粉凝胶的冻融稳定性。结果表明,3种食品胶协同干热处理均能起到改善马铃薯淀粉加工特性的作用,对其改善程度对比分析发现,黄原胶协同干热处理改善马铃薯淀粉特性效果最好。     

Quality characteristics improvement of low‐phenylalanine toast bread

This study was designed to prepare and evaluate low‐phenylalanine toast bread made from gliadin‐free wheat flour and hydrocolloids. Wheat protein fraction (gliadin) rich in phenylalanine was extracted using aqueous alcohol solution for the production of low‐phenylalanine wheat flour. Pectin, gum arabic and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) were used separately to improve the quality of bread at levels of 1, 2 and 3%. Chemical, rheological, organoleptic, baking, staling and microstructure of bread were studied. Phenylalanine content of gliadin‐free bread samples reduced by 43.2% compared with control. Separation of gliadin negatively affected the rheological properties of dough and baking quality of bread, while rheological properties, baking quality and staling were improved upon hydrocolloids addition. Microscopic examination of crumb structure revealed remarkable differences in control and treated breads. It was found that acceptable bread could be produced using gliadin‐free wheat flour with the addition of pectin or CMC up to 2 and 3%, respectively.     

A study on the effects of different gums on dielectric properties and quality of breads baked in infrared-microwave combination oven

In this study, the effects of different gums on dielectric properties of doughs and breads baked in infrared-microwave combination oven were investigated. In addition, the quality parameters of breads formulated with different gums baked in infrared-microwave combination oven were determined. The gums used were xanthan, guar, xanthan-guar blend and κ-carrageenan. The gums were added to the formulation at 0.5% concentration. The dielectric properties and quality parameters of breads baked in infrared-microwave combination oven were found to be dependent on gum type. κ-carrageenan resulted in undesirable final bread quality, while xanthan-guar blend addition improved bread quality (high specific volume and porosity, low hardness values). The dielectric properties of bread samples formulated with κ-carrageenan were found to be the highest among the other gum types.     

Investigation of physicochemical properties of breads baked in microwave and infrared-microwave combination ovens during storage

Staling of breads baked in different ovens (microwave, infrared-microwave combination and conventional) was investigated with the help of mechanical (compression measurements), physicochemical (DSC, X-ray, FTIR) and rheological (RVA) methods. The effect of xanthan-guar gum blend addition on bread staling was also studied. Xanthan-guar gum blend at 0.5% concentration was used in bread formulation. The gums were mixed at equal concentrations to obtain the blend. After baking, the staling parameters of breads were monitored over 5 days storage. During storage, it was seen that hardness, retrogradation enthalpies, setback viscosity, crystallinity values, and FTIR outputs related to starch retrogradation of bread samples increased, whereas FTIR outputs related to moisture content of samples decreased significantly with time. The hardness, retrogradation enthalpy, setback viscosity, and crystallinity values of microwave-baked samples were found to be highest among other heating modes. Using IR-microwave combination heating made it possible to produce breads with similar staling degrees as conventionally baked ones in terms of retrogradation enthalpy and FTIR outputs related to starch retrogradation. Addition of xanthan-guar gum blend decreased hardness, retrogradation enthalpy and total mass crystallinity values of bread samples showing that staling was delayed.     

Strategies Used in Production of Phenylalanine‐Free Foods for PKU Management

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is one of the most widespread dysfunctions caused by an inheritable problem in the phenylalanine metabolism. In this metabolic disease, gene mutations in phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) result in phenylalanine accumulation that causes varying degrees of mental retardation. The most effective treatment is restriction of phenylalanine in diet provided through different strategies including combination of low‐protein foods, hydrolyzing of protein‐rich foods, or use of protein substitutes. Meat and meat products, sea foods, milk and infant formula, cereal products, and beans are among the modified foods for PKU management. Elimination of phenylalanine from food presents major technological, nutritional, and organolleptic challenges because protein, as an essential structure‐building and nutritional element, is removed. In addition, following this program is laborious, boring, and restrictive for both patients and their families. This paper reviews the current findings about PKU and the recent developments in the production of phenylalanine‐free foods. Also, the nutritional requirements and challenges encountered by PKU individuals and food technologists are finally discussed.     

Effects of different emulsifier types,fat contents,and gum types on retardation of staling of microwave‐baked cakes

The effects of different types of emulsifiers, gums, and fat contents on the retardation of staling of microwave‐baked cakes were investigated. First, different types of emulsifiers (DATEM, Lecigran, and Purawave) at three different fat contents (50%, 25%, and 0%) were added to cake formulations to retard staling of microwave‐baked cakes. Then, three types of gums (guar gum, xanthan gum, and methylcellulose) were added to the optimum formulations chosen. As a control, cakes formulated without any emulsifier or gum addition and baked in an conventional oven at 175°C for 25 min was used. Weight loss, firmness, soluble starch and amylose content of the cakes were used as the indicators of staling criteria. Cakes were baked in a microwave oven for 1.5 min at 100% power. Variation of staling parameters during storage of cakes followed zero‐order kinetics. Use of emulsifiers and gums helped to retard staling of microwave‐baked cakes. Fat content was found to be a significant factor in affecting variation of firmness and weight loss of the cakes during storage. DATEM and Purawave were the most effective emulsifier types. Using gums in combination with emulsifiers gave better moisture retention and softer cakes than using gums alone.     

The effects of gums on macro and micro-structure of breads baked in different ovens

In this study, the effects of gums on macro and micro-structure of breads baked in different ovens (infrared (IR)-microwave combination and conventional) were investigated by the help of image and SEM analysis, respectively. The gums used were xanthan, guar, κ-carrageenan and xanthan-guar blend. The gums were added to the formulation at 0.5% concentration. As a control, no gum added formulations were used. Results of Image analysis demonstrated that xanthan-guar gum blend addition improved bread quality with increasing pore area fractions. It was seen that about 75% of the pores of control breads baked in infrared-microwave combination oven and about 63% of the pores of control breads baked in conventional oven had diameters of above 1000 μm. According to SEM analysis, pores in control breads baked in conventional oven were found to be smaller, and had spherical, oval-like shape as compared to the ones baked in IR-microwave combination oven. Moreover, more homogeneous closed-cell structure was observed for conventionally baked control breads. The pores of breads baked in IR-microwave combination oven were so close to each other which resulted in coalescence of the gas cells to form channels, then the pores were no longer spherical. The starch granules in conventionally baked breads were more distorted and seen as a continuous sheet of gelatinized starch. On the other hand, granular residues and continuous starch structure was observed together in IR-microwave combination heating.     

The Relationship Between Wheat Flour and Starch Pasting Properties and Starch Hydrolysis: Effect of Non‐starch Polysaccharides in a Starch Gel System

Non‐starch polysaccharides (NSPs) and celite (used as inert filler) were incorporated into wheat flour and wheat starch paste preparations at levels of 1, 2.5, and 5% in both addition and replacement modes. Pasting properties of gums were compared using a Rapid Visco Analyser. Use of guar gum and locust bean gum elevated the peak and final viscosities of the resulting pastes (when used in either addition or replacement modes), whereas arabic gum significantly reduced the peak and final viscosity properties of the pastes. Samples which comprised wheat starch yielded higher peak and final viscosity characteristics compared to wheat flour containing samples, however higher breakdown and setback values were observed for samples using wheat flour as a base compared to wheat starch. The firmness of the gels (as determined using a texture analyser) increased with the use of wheat starch compared to wheat flour. Little significant difference was observed between NSP used and mode of application (replacement or addition). In vitro starch degradation was conducted on the wheat flour gels. Guar gum and locust bean gum reduced the amount of starch degradation in these gels, whereas arabic gum and celite increased the amount of starch hydrolysis (or were similar to the control). The rate of starch hydrolysis appears to be related to the viscosity altering behaviour of the NSPs in a starch‐rich system. The results indicate that selection of NSPs is important as gum arabic has the potential to increase starch hydrolysis compared to the control.     

甘氨酸和淀粉膜对面包中丙烯酰胺的协同控制作用

研究面包配料中添加甘氨酸和在面团表面涂刷淀粉膜对面包表皮中丙烯酰胺的协同控制作用。甘氨酸对丙烯酰胺的抑制效果非常显著,当甘氨酸的添加量为面粉的0.1%时,对丙烯酰胺的抑制率达到80.5%;当甘氨酸添加量为面粉的3%时,能将丙烯酰胺含量减少到检测限（＜1?μg/kg）以下。在对面团进行焙烤前,将面团表面涂刷不同的淀粉膜,能够抑制面包中的丙烯酰胺20%以上;抑制效果由高到低分别为：混合淀粉膜＞马铃薯淀粉膜＞玉米淀粉膜。将两种方法结合,甘氨酸在低添加量（0.1%）时结合玉米淀粉膜,对丙烯酰胺的抑制率增加到85.1%,同时还能较好地保持面包的外观颜色。甘氨酸与天冬酰胺竞争底物和淀粉膜中限制性前体物质天冬酰胺的大量减少,是面包中丙烯酰胺的生成量显著降低的主要原因。     

EFFECT OF SURFACTANT GEL AND GUM COMBINATIONS ON DOUGH RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITY OF BREAD

Sodium stearoyl‐2‐lactylate (SSL), diacetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglyceride (DATEM), glycerol monostearate (GMS) and distilled glycerol monostearate (DGMS) surfactant gels were made with water. Addition of surfactant gels decreased water absorption by the bread while xanthan, karaya, guar and locust bean gums increased the same. Only DGMS or GMS and gum combinations further improved water absorption. All the gums except for guar along with surfactant gels improved dough stability. Both surfactant gels and gums improved the extensograph dough properties of wheat flour to varying degrees. Alveograph characteristics of wheat flour improved to varying extents with surfactant gels while the gums influenced the viscoelastic properties in differing ways. Different combinations of surfactant gels and gums showed varied influences on rapid visco analyzer characteristics of wheat flour. Both surfactant gels and gums improved the bread making quality. Among surfactants, SSL in combination with gums, and among gums locust bean in combination with surfactant gels improved the bread making quality of wheat flour to a maximum extent.     

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF CORN NOODLES CONTAINING GELATINIZED STARCH, TRANSGLUTAMINASE AND GUM

ABSTRACT

Effects of gelatinized corn flour addition level (40, 60 and 80%), gum (locust bean gum or xanthan gum, 3%) and/or transglutaminase (TG, 0.5%) on quality characteristics of corn noodle were investigated. Gelatinized corn flour was used as a binder for remaining untreated corn flour (60, 40 and 20%). Corn noodles were evaluated in terms of cooking properties (cooking loss, total organic matter (TOM), water absorption, swelling volume and maximum force), color, sensory and pasting properties. Noodle sample containing gelatinized corn flour at level of 80% exhibited best cooking and sensory properties. Gum and/or TG were added to this noodle formula. Gum improved noodle quality in terms of some cooking properties. Improving effect of xanthan gum was more obvious. Covalent crosslinks catalyzed by TG caused significantly lower cooking loss and TOM values. Gums generally caused increases in Rapid ViscoAnalyzer viscosity values of noodles. Gum and/or TG show great promise in processing of gluten‐free corn noodle.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Celiac disease occurs in about one in 300 people in Europe. Lack of gluten in cereals that are safe for gluten‐free food causes major problems in dough processing and product quality. Technological difficulties in production and lack of awareness of number of celiac patients in need of gluten‐free products might restrict researches related to gluten‐free food. In recent years, various approaches to overcome the technological problems are arising. Searching for ingredients that have ability to mimic properties of gluten in production of gluten‐free food is the most common approach. We report herein beneficial effects of gelatinization, gum (locust bean gum, xanthan gum) and/or transglutaminase (TG) in gluten‐free corn noodle production. They have major improving effects in noodle quality and show great promise as a processing aid in bulk manufacture of gluten‐free corn noodle. To the best of our knowledge, there is no study investigating utilization of TG in gluten‐free corn noodles.     

Utilization of rice starch with gums in Asian starch noodle preparation as substitute for sweet potato starch

Starch noodles were produced using a medium grain rice starch in the presence of various gums, and physical properties of the noodles were compared with sweet potato starch noodle. Pasting viscosity of the rice starch was lower than that of sweet potato starch (830 vs. 1,618 cp as peak viscosity). The peak viscosity, however, was increased by the addition of gums (0.1% based on dispersion), and especially xanthan was the most effective in increasing the peak viscosity (1,478 cp). The cooking loss for the rice starch noodles (1.5 mg/mL), greater than that for the sweet potato starch noodle (0.2 mg/mL), was effectively reduced to 0.8 and 0.9 mg/mL, respectively, by the addition of locust bean gum (LBG) and curdlan. The addition of LBG or gellen gum also increased the hardness of the rice noodles. Aging (extended retrogradation) the noodles was effective in reducing the cooking loss and improving the textural properties of the rice starch noodles. The combination of the gum addition (like LBG) and aging of the rice starch noodle might be useful for utilizing rice starch as a substitute for sweet potato starch in Asian noodle preparation.     

Influence of selected hydrocolloids on triticale starch rheological properties

The aim of the study was to define the influence of selected nonstarch polysaccharides (guar gum, xanthan gum and arabic gum) on several rheological properties of triticale starch pastes/gels, at constant polysaccharide concentration (6.5 g/100 g). These included pasting characteristics, flow curves at 50 °C and mechanical spectra at 25 °C. It was found that the presence of a gum in a system modified the rheological properties of triticale starch gels/pastes, depending on the type and concentration of the gums. In the case of guar and xanthan gums, higher pasting viscosity was observed and the shear stress was increased compared with native starch. The presence of guar gum reduced the degree of thixotropy hysteresis, negative values for this being found for systems with xanthan in spite of their shear‐thinning behaviour. Systems containing arabic gum displayed lower values of pasting and flow viscosity. The type and concentration of gums added to the polysaccharide influenced the viscoelastic properties of the gels.     

Effect of Retrograded Waxy Corn Starch on Bread Staling

Waxy corn starch pastes (10%) were stored at 5 °C for up to 35 days, and the powder specimens of retrograded starches thus obtained were added to wheat flour for bread baking at a level of 5%. The effect of retrograded starch on the staling of bread was determined. The loaf which contained retrograded waxy corn starch, which was prepared by storing the 10% paste at 5 °C for 7 days, showed an increase in specific volume and the results of the sensory evaluation showed that it was very acceptable. During the storage of bread, the increase in firmness and decrease in degree of gelatinization were suppressed by adding retrograded waxy corn starch. The moisture content of bread crumbs did not relate to firmness. Added retrograded waxy corn starch decreased the final viscosity of flour. The crystalline region of retrograded waxy corn starch used for bread baking included longer chains from amylopectin which in raw starch occurred in the amorphous region.