The First Normal Stress Difference in a Shear-Thinning Motor Oil at Elevated Pressure

Currently, the only aspect of non-Newtonian behavior being modeled in lubrication is the shear dependence of viscosity. However, shear thinning is accompanied by a large difference between the normal stress in the flow direction and the cross-film direction. This stress difference can increase the load capability of a lubricant film without increased frictional penalty.

A commercial 10W-40 motor oil was characterized at elevated pressures. Three different high-pressure instruments were employed: a falling-body viscometer, a thin-film Couette viscometer, and a parallel-plate rheogoniometer. Ordinary shear thinning with a second Newtonian inflection was observed. A first normal stress difference of 0.6 MPa was measured under what may be mild conditions for a crankshaft journal bearing. Elevated pressures are essential to the measurement of rheological properties that govern hydrodynamic film thickness and friction in automotive components.

Time–temperature–pressure superposition was validated for the first normal stress difference. The first normal stress difference in the terminal regime may be estimated from the upper-convected Maxwell model, where the shear modulus is assumed to be equal to the Newtonian limit shear stress obtained from a measurement of shear thinning. The first normal stress difference in the shear-thinning regime may be estimated from an extant empirical rule.

These results will be of substantial importance when analytical techniques are developed for hydrodynamic lubrication with real non-Newtonian shear response. The results are immediately useful for calculating the shear stress for cavitation in ambient pressure high-shear viscometers.     

Direct Observation of Cavitation Phenomenon and Hydrodynamic Lubrication Analysis of Textured Surfaces

When a textured ring rotates relatively against the other texture-free ring in a parallel thrust bearing, cavitation of liquid lubricant may occur in the divergent zones of the dimples or grooves on the textured surface due to local pressure drops. The Reynolds and Jakobsson–Floberg–Olsson (JFO) models are two widely used cavitation models in hydrodynamic lubrication theory, where the former lacks mass conservation while the latter enforces it. In order to investigate the applicability of the two models to the hydrodynamic lubrication analysis of parallel thrust bearings with surface textures, comparison between experiment and simulation results has been carried out on parallel thrust bearings in terms of cavitation zone morphology in a groove, friction coefficient, and bearing clearance. The results have shown that the observed cavitation morphology in steady state is more similar to the prediction from the JFO model than that from the Reynolds model.     

Calculation of a Safety Margin for Hydrogenerator Thrust Bearings

The purpose of this paper is to present the two-dimensional linear stability analysis considering the fluid flow in both full film and cavitation regions for a plain cylindrical journal bearing. The Lund's infinitesimal perturbation procedure is applied to Elrod's universal equation for evaluation of unsteady pressure gradients. Based on JFO theory, the pressure distribution, film rupture, and reformation boundaries can be obtained using Elrod's universal equation, for a given operating position of the journal. In this work, it is assumed that for infinitesimal perturbation of a journal about the equilibrium position, the film rupture and film reformation boundaries are the same as those obtained for steady state. However, the unsteady pressure gradients in the full film region are evaluated taking into consideration the perturbed flow parameters in the cavitation region, i.e., at both rupture and reformation boundaries. The linearized stiffness and damping coefficients, whirl frequency ratio, and threshold speed for various values of eccentricity and L/D ratios are obtained for a plain cylindrical journal bearing with an axial groove along the load line. Measured data of dynamic coefficients for a 120° partial arc bearing are chosen for comparison with this work. Results show good agreement between the theoretical and experimental results.     

Numerical investigation of pocketed slip slider bearing with non-Newtonian lubricant

Boundary slip as well as surface texturing is an effective method to improve the tribological performance of lubricated mechanical components. This article analyzes the combined effect of single texturing (pocketing) and wall slip on pressure that strongly related to the load-carrying capacity of slider bearing. The modified Reynolds equation for lubrication with non-Newtonian power-law fluid is proposed. The equation was solved numerically using a finite difference equation obtained by means of the micro-control volume approach. Further, numerical computations for slider bearing with several power-law indexes were compared with the presence of the pocket and slip. The numerical results showed that the characteristic of non-Newtonian is similar to Newtonian fluid with respect to hydrodynamic pressure distribution. The maximum load support is achieved when the pocket depth is equal to the film thickness.     

基于格子Boltzmann方法的分叉微通道内非牛顿流体流动特性研究

为探究分叉微通道内非牛顿流体的流动特性,将非牛顿流体幂律模型引入牛顿流体格子Boltzmann模型,在不同分叉角度矩形截面微通道内数值模拟不同质量分数剪切稀化流体的流动行为;通过分析流动过程中密度随时间的变化趋势以及稳态流动下的密度,得到微通道内压力的分布以及流动区间的压力降;分析溶液质量分数、入口速度与分叉角度对非牛...     

空穴效应对倾斜轴颈轴承润滑性能影响的研究

为更准确地分析倾斜轴颈轴承的润滑性能,基于控制体积质量守恒原理,综合考虑宏观空穴和微凸体间空穴的影响,建立包括空穴区域在内的统一润滑控制方程,分析了宏观空穴和微凸体间空穴对润滑性能的影响。研究结果表明,空穴现象对最大油膜压力影响不大;宏观空穴现象使得轴承润滑油进口低压区域面积增大,形成较大的空穴区域,同时油膜出口边界滞后;微凸体间空穴使进口空穴边界和出口空穴边界均略微提前;在空穴区域,润滑介质密度低,空穴程度较大;微凸体间空穴对全润滑区域的润滑介质密度分布影响较大,特别是在空穴边界附近;宏观空穴对端泄流量、油膜力矩和油膜承载力有较大的影响,微凸体间空穴的影响可以忽略。     

A parametric study of a porous self-circulating hydrodynamic bearing

This paper is presenting a 3D, isothermal numerical analysis of a cylindrical porous journal bearing characterized by a self-circulating lubricating system that eliminates the necessity of an external circulating pump. The system includes a stationary porous bushing whose inner diameter faces the bearing clearance while the outer diameter faces a wrapped-around reservoir. The loaded, eccentric shaft is generating a high pressure zone in the convergent region followed by a low pressure zone in the divergent region causing the fluid to circulate naturally between the bearing clearance and the reservoir, as it passes through the porous bushing. The fundamental physics of the circulating mechanism are described, and its operation is numerically simulated. The study uses the complete 3D Navier–Stokes Equations (NSE) for the fluid motion in the bearing clearance and the adjacent reservoir. The flow inside the porous matrix is modeled using the Brinkman formulation with added pressure ‘penalties’ brought by the addition of the Darcy and Forchheimer terms. The bearing operates in the fully hydrodynamic lubricating regime disregarding surface roughness effects. A cavitation model proposed by Singhal et al. (2002 [1]) is utilized in the numerical simulation to account for flow and pressure characteristics in the divergent region. The parameters used during the simulations are angular velocity, permeability, porosity, reservoir depth and shaft eccentricity. The results which include the flow patterns, pressure maps and attitude angles, are presented on a parametric basis, and confirm the functionality of the proposed self-circulating system. It was found that the load capacity decreases and the attitude angle increase as permeability increases, and depending on permeability ranges, the increase in the reservoir depth may result in a reduction of the load capacity. Further, certain combinations of geometric parameters and permeability values render the pressure build-up independent of the reservoir depth. Because an optimal configuration requires both a large fluid mass flows through the porous bed (for cooling purposes) and a large load carrying capability, two variables at odds with each other in the present model, an interactive parametric analysis is essential in order to optimize the load carrying capacity versus geometric and operational parameters.     

Texture shape effects on hydrodynamic journal bearing performances using mass-conserving numerical approach

ABSTRACT

It is a known fact that incorporating textures in the contact surfaces can significantly enhance bearing performances. The purpose of this paper is to outline the effects of texture bottom profiles and contour geometries on the performances of hydrodynamic textured journal bearings. The analysis was conducted using computational approach to test eight texture shapes: rectangular, cylindrical, spherical, triangular (TR, T1, T2, T3) and chevron. The steady-state Reynolds equation for modelling the hydrodynamic behaviour of thin viscous film was solved using finite difference technique and mass conservation algorithm (JFO boundary conditions), taking into account the presence of textures on both full film and cavitation regions. The comparison with the benchmark data shows good consistency and an enhancement in bearing performances (load carrying capacity and friction). The results clearly show that the mechanisms of wedge effect and micro-step bearing for the full/partial texturing feature are the main crucial parameters, where the convergent wedge effect present in T2 triangular texture shape can significantly enhance the load-carrying capacity, while the divergent wedge action causes a net load loss. Considering the right arrangement of textures on the contact surface, their surface contours can have a significant impact on the performance of hydrodynamic journal bearings at high eccentricity ratios.     

润滑油中不凝结气体对滑动轴承间隙流场特性影响研究

油润滑滑动轴承是大型旋转机械中承担转子动静载荷的重要部件,在间隙内动压与空化效应并存,形成复杂的气液两相流场,其特性直接影响轴承宏观性能及设备安全稳定运行。在现场工作条件下,润滑油通常含有一定量的不凝结气体(Non-condensable gas,NCG),不仅会使油品物性参数偏离标称性能,也会参与气液两相间的传质过程。基于轴承间隙内润滑油的流动特点,提出了流场中存在动压-空化耦合关系,并结合气液混合相模型及全空化模型对间隙内三维流场进行数值求解。结果表明:在NCG的影响下,流场特性的演化具有阶段性,在不同的NCG质量分数区间内流场特性表现不同;最大压力、最大气体体积分数及承载力的幅值随NCG质量分数的变化是非单调的,存在有最大值;压力场、相态场的分布面积、位置及承载力的方向随NCG质量分数变化而发生偏移。     

Cavitation erosion of a flat surface near a rotating shaft

To clarify the phenomenon of cavitation erosion in the sliding bearings of internal combustion engines, an apparatus was prepared and tests were conducted on cavitation in the oil between the cylindrical face of a rotating shaft and the tip of a horn attached to an ultrasonic oscillator. This apparatus produces an oil flow and a plus-minus oil pressure between a shaft and a horn tip to simulate erosion and its distribution on bearing surfaces.From patterns of cavitation erosion on the tip of a horn made of an Al-Sn alloy and the pressure distribution on the wedge oil film, it was determined that the region where cavitation bubbles occur and the region where erosion occurs owing to the collapse of the bubbles do not necessarily coincide.Cavitation erosion was found to occur in both the plus and the minus oil film pressure regions and erosion due to bubble collapse occurs in the regions where pressure increases in the direction of oil flow.The test results allow the postulation of the mechanism and the reasons for the occurrence of cavitation erosion on actual sliding bearing surfaces.     

Parametric study of texturing in convergent bearings

The effect of textured surfaces in hydrodynamic bearings is assessed using a mass-conserving numerical analysis that allows for arbitrary geometry and multiple regions of cavitation. The texture investigated consists of regularly spaced rectangular pockets through an (infinitely) long linearly convergent or parallel bearing. This arrangement leads to nine independent non-dimensional parameters including operating conditions. The effectiveness of texture at improving load support and reducing friction over a corresponding plain bearing is described in relation to these parameters and the important interaction between parameters is highlighted. The beneficial or detrimental effect of texture is explained in terms of the fundamental mechanisms of hydrodynamic pressure generation including inlet suction.     

Hydrodynamic Pressure Generation in a Pocketed Thrust Washer

The objective of this study was to experimentally investigate hydrodynamic pressure generation in surface-pocketed thrust washers. A novel method of pressure mapping was developed to allow for in situ measurement of the pressure generated by surface modifications. Thin-film pressure transducers, located just below the thrust washer surface, were used to measure pressure variations as a function of the operating conditions. Contour maps showing the cavitation region and the location of peak pressure were clearly displayed. The experimental work presented maps the pressure profiles with real-time, high-resolution sensors. The thin-film pressure transducers were used to investigate the pressure interactions between surface features. In addition to the experimental setup, a model of the contact was developed using ANSYS FLUENT. Cavitation, friction, film thickness, and load support were all compared with experimental results and the two were shown to be in good agreement. The model demonstrated an accurate prediction of the pressure profile but varied slightly with the predicted load support of the thrust washer. The simulation was then used to optimize the pocket density for the experimental operating conditions. The optimal bearing design had the highest load-carrying capacity with a low friction coefficient.     

Lubricant additives effects on the hydrodynamic lubrication of misaligned conical–cylindrical bearings

Conical–cylindrical bearings are used in electrohydraulic servo systems to improve the control accuracy, eliminate the static friction and increase the normal load‐carrying capacity. A non‐Newtonian rheological model to investigate theoretically the effects of lubricant additives on the performance of misaligned conical–cylindrical bearings is proposed in this study. In this model, the non‐Newtonian behaviour resulting from blending the lubricant with polymer additives is simulated by Stokes couple stress fluid model. The formed boundary layer at the bearing surface is described through the use of a hypothetical porous medium layer that adheres to the bearing surface. The Brinkman‐extended Darcy equations are utilised to model the flow in the porous region. A stress jump boundary condition is applied at the porous media/fluid film interface. The misalignment of the cylinder rod is also considered. A modified form of the Reynolds equation is derived and solved numerically using a finite difference scheme. The effects of bearing geometry and non‐Newtonian behaviour of the lubricant on the steady‐state performance characteristics such as pressure distribution, load‐carrying capacity and coefficient of friction are presented and discussed. The results showed that lubricant additives significantly increase the load‐carrying capacity and reduce the coefficient of friction as compared to the Newtonian lubricants. Furthermore, the misalignment of the piston rod has significant effects on the performance of conical–cylindrical bearings. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于动网格方法的油膜轴承性能的研究

考虑气穴的影响,建立了油膜轴承所支撑转子系统的动力学模型,并利用新的动网格更新方法,编制了求解油膜轴承压力分布、转子静平衡位置以及轴心轨迹的程序,验证了其正确性。利用该程序考察了气穴压力和转速对油膜轴承压力分布和所支撑转子的轴心静平衡位置的影响。计算结果表明,在相同的速度和载荷下,随着气化压力升高,轴承偏心率和最大油膜压力增大,偏位角减小,并且最大油膜压力的周向位置受气化压力的影响较小;而在相同的载荷下,转速对转子静平衡位置影响较大,并随着转速增加,轴承偏心率减小,偏位角增加。     

A numerical model of an oscillating squeeze film between a rubber surface and a rigid surface

A numerical model for the hydrodynamic behavior of an oscillating squeeze film between a rubber surface and a rigid surface is presented. The effects of roughness of the rubber surface on the hydrodynamic force and the leakage flow rate in the squeeze film are analyzed. A modified Reynolds equation, Laplace equation and a three-parameter viscoelastic constitutive equation are solved simultaneously to obtain the pressure distribution in the squeeze film and the deformation of the rubber surface. Equations are discretized into finite difference equations and solved by Gauss-Siedel iteration method. It is found that increasing roughness of the surface profile significantly increases the hydrodynamic force accompanied by a small decrease in the leakage flow rate. Spatial distribution of the roughness of the rubber surface has no significant effect on the leakage flow rate or hydrodynamic force. The results obtained from the presented simple model are compared with the experimental results available in the literature and a very good agreement is found.     

Influence of Fluid Slip on Operation Characteristics for High-Speed Spiral Groove Seal Ring

The multi-phase method applied in cavitation region believes gas and oil phase separated and oil slips over gas layer, so slip plays a role for fluid flowing in cavitation region. Spiral groove is widely applied in seal ring for its perfect hydrodynamic effect, but the cavitation is easy to occur in divergence region of groove. Therefore, influences of both cavitation and slip on operation characteristics for spiral groove seal ring at high speed have been discussed in multi-phase method. In order to attain this goal, a new hydrodynamic model based on multi-phase method, apparent local slip theory and JFO cavitation theory is built up. An accurate prediction of lubrication characteristics is represented by comparing with published experimental data. Also, the slip region is observed by a designed test and the observed results are almost the same with simulation, which further confirms the rationality of the new hydrodynamic model based on multi-phase method. The results show the cavitation ratio and area of slip region increase with the rise of speed and spiral angle. However, as to slip level, it rises with speed but decreases with spiral angle. Then, the damping and stiffness obtained from new model are compared with conventional model. Stiffness coefficient in new model is smaller than conventional model, while the damping coefficient is larger.     

The investigation of oil film thickness in heavily-loaded contact

An experimental study of the shape and thickness of the oil film during rolling in a thrust ball bearing has been carried out by the interference method.The experimental results showed good agreement with theory. Oil film thickness was affected mainly by the rolling velocity, viscosity of oil and maximum Hertzian stress. The groove radius had no effect on the film thickness. With increase of rolling velocity the film thickness increases and then reduces sharply owing to temperature rise and the non-Newtonian properties of the lubricant. A qualitative similarity was derived from the experimentally observed dimensionless shapes of the film and of the dimensionless theoretical shapes of the oil film for the lubricant in the non-Newtonian state. The flat “squashed” contact area diminished and disappeared with rise in velocity, which agreed with theoretical predictions.Good agreement was found between the theoretical and the experimental values of the oil film thickness and the friction coefficients for a ball sliding on a plane. Values of relaxation time for oil agree with values observed by the vibration method.The interference method is proposed to estimate the relation of the relaxation time for lubricants to the pressure and temperature up to maximum Hertzian pressures of 14,000 kg/cm². Experimental studies by the interference method and the solution of the non-isothermal hydrodynamic contact problem for liquids both in the Newtonian and non-Newtonian state provide a method of calculation of the friction coefficient.     

Research on Effects of Groove Shape Optimization on Cavitation and Lubricating Characteristics for Microgroove Rotary Seal

This article studies the effects of groove shape optimization on cavitation and lubricating characteristics of microgroove rotary seals (MGRS). A lubrication model considering cavitation effects for MGRS is established to obtain the variation in cavitation and lubricating characteristics with operating conditions. Furthermore, an optimization model of groove shape based on the lubrication cavitation model is developed and an optimal groove is obtained by co-designing the parameters of both groove shape structures and molded lines. The effects of optimal grooves and ordinary spiral grooves on cavitation and lubricating characteristics are compared and validation tests are carried out. Theoretical and experimental results indicate that the lubrication cavitation model based on the mass conservation boundary condition for MGRS could accurately predict the cavitation region of ordinary spiral grooves. Optimal grooves improve the pressure distribution of the groove area and restrain the generation of a cavitation region; therefore, the fluid bearing capacity and dynamic stiffness of optimal grooves are much larger than those of ordinary spiral grooves.     

Effects of groove textures on fully lubricated sliding with cavitation

A two-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was developed to investigate the effects of groove textures on fully lubricated sliding with cavitation. The effects of cavitation pressure, sliding speed, sliding pitch angle and texture scale were discussed. It was found that the hydrodynamic pressure effect becomes more pronounced with higher cavitation pressure, and the hydrodynamic pressure decreases with the reduction of the sliding speed. Also with a sliding pitch angle, the hydrodynamic pressure is dependent on both pocket and wedge effects. Increasing groove number and reducing the groove size enhances the overall load capacity, but has a little effect on friction coefficient.     

考虑黏-温及空穴效应的低速滑动轴承润滑性能分析

在低速重载条件下,温度升高导致的润滑油黏度下降以及局部压力过低产生的油膜空穴,严重影响到油膜压力与承载力等润滑性能。为探究考虑黏-温及空穴效应的低速滑动轴承润滑性能,通过编写黏-温方程的UDF程序,建立滑动轴承的Fluent有限元模型,考虑Mixture多相流模型的空穴效应,系统计算轴承油膜在不同工况下的润滑性能,分析对比偏心率、轴系转速以及黏-温效应的影响作用。结果表明：考虑黏-温效应条件下的油膜最大压力、最大温度、承载力以及空穴区域气穴最大体积分数均小于黏度恒定的情况,轴系转速和偏心率的增大会导致空穴区域最大体积分数的增加。