Effect of sub-zero cooling on microstructure and mechanical properties of a low alloyed austempered ductile iron

The effect of sub-zero cooling on microstructure and mechanical properties of a low alloyed austempered ductile iron has been investigated. Austempering of samples was performed at 325℃and 400℃after austenitizing at 875℃and 950℃. The sub-zero treatments were carried out by cooling down the samples to -30℃, -70℃and -196℃. The changes in volume fraction of austenite and mechanical properties were determined after cooling to each temperature. The austenite volume fraction of samples which were austenitized at 875℃and austempered at 325℃remained unchanged, whilst it reduced in samples austenitized at 950℃and 875℃for austempering temperature of 400℃. In these specimens, some austenite transformed to martensite after subzero cooling. Mechanical property measurements showed a slight increase in strength and hardness and decrease in elongation and toughness due to this transformation behavior.     

较高温度等温淬火(回火)对球墨铸铁性能的影响

分别采取普通等温淬火、两级等温淬火、等温淬火＋回火3种热处理工艺对较高温度下球墨铸铁（成分为质量分数％；3.80C,2.46Si,0.25Mn,0.026S,0.036P,0.051Mg,0.022RE)的组织和性能进行了研究，发现热处理工艺带变窄或消失，得到基体中不含奥氏体的贝氏体球墨铸铁。这种球墨铸铁虽然塑韧性较差，但具有较高的强度、硬度和疲劳极限，而且耐磨性和切削性良好。     

Micromechanical modelling of nodular cast iron,a composite material

This article aims to show that the overall characteristics of nodular cast iron can be modelled with rather straight-forward micromechanical models. The mechanical and short crack properties of this composite are analysed using finite element models with symmetrical patterns of holes or voids, representing the graphite nodules. Closed form expressions for the elastic-plastic properties are also applied and compared. The mechanical properties are well described. An approximate expression for the stress intensity factor (K) is derived for a crack emanating from a nodule in a nodule pattern. Introducing a fatigue limit condition based on the assumption of the existence of a short crack fatigue threshold, simulations are performed with variations in crack size, nodule size and spacing. The fatigue results are essentially qualitative, but are considered capable of capturing some important trends since the qualitative agreement with experiments is good.     

Nodule influence on fatigue crack growth thresholds in nodular cast iron

The influence of microstructure i.e. nodules (voids) on the fatigue threshold value in nodular cast iron is numerically investigated. It is qualitatively shown that the fatigue threshold value is unaffected by the individual nodules and that the threshold value is proportional to the bulk Young's modulus. Furthermore it is shown that nodules (voids) do not influence the crack tip conditions (stress-intensity factor and crack tip opening displacement) if the voids do not lie very close to the tip for physically long cracks. It is concluded that linear elastic fracture mechanics is valid for these types of materials and no influence of the nodules need be taken into count for fatigue calculations when dealing with long cracks.     

Thermal fatigue characteristics of plasma duplex treated nodular cast irons

The correlation between the thermal fatigue resistance and microstructure of untreated and plasma surface engineered nodular cast irons was investigated. Both the ferrite and pearlite matrix nodular cast irons were evaluated. During the tests, 60 mm long cylinders with 20 mm diameter were subjected to 1000 high frequency induction heating and water cooling cycles, lasting 7 and 5 s, respectively. The thermal fatigue damage was evaluated by analyzing the crack dimensions and distributions. The results showed that the plasma surface treatment increased thermal fatigue resistance. When thermal cracking occurred, the cracks always nucleated at the surface of the specimen. In addition, the nodular cast iron with a pearlite matrix had a better resistance to thermal fatigue than that of the ferrite matrix.     

Influence of closure on the 3D propagation of fatigue cracks in a nodular cast iron investigated by X-ray tomography and 3D volume correlation

Synchrotron X-ray tomography was performed during in situ fatigue crack propagation in two small-size specimens made of nodular graphite cast iron. While direct image analysis allows us to retrieve the successive positions of the crack front, and to detect local crack retardation, volume correlation allows for the measurement of displacement fields in the bulk of the specimen. The stress intensity factors (SIFs), which are extracted from the measured displacement fields and the corresponding local crack growth rate all along the front, are in good agreement with published results. In particular, it is possible to link the non-propagation of a crack with crack closure in the crack opening displacement maps or with a local value of the measured SIF range. It is shown that a non-uniform closure process along the crack front induces an asymmetric arrest/growth of the crack.     

A study of several factors governing the fatigue limits of austempered ductile cast iron with various microstructures

The effects the leading factors bearing on fatigue limits were investigated with three kinds of ductile iron specimens various microstructures. As a result of examination, the fatigue limits in relationship to hardness and tensile strength, the expected higher improvement for fatigue limits in the case of the high strength specimens that experienced austempering treatment are not observed in comparison with the specimens treated with stress relief treatment. The estimated maximum defect size is one of the important parameters in predicting and evaluating fatigue limits for three different heat-treated ductile cast irons. Also, a quantitative relationship can be established between the fatigue limit and maximum defect size. Moreover, it is possible to explain the difference in fatigue limits in the three ductile cast irons by application of the rates of non-propagating crack which connects the adjacent graphite nodules before it stops.     

Effect of C and Si on mechanical properties of austempered ductile iron

It is well known that ductile cast iron can be strengthened and toughened by austempering. The tensile strength and the fatigue strength of austempered ductile iron (ADI) are equal to those of forged steel. Previous studies have been aimed at establishing a suitable process to obtain both strength and toughness in ADI.^1,2 These studies focused on the effect of alloying such as Mo, Ni, Mn, Cu, etc. and the austempering conditions such as temperature and holding time. In this study, a new type of ADI with higher toughness and higher elongation was developed as compared with conventional ADI. A new type of ADI with a low carbon content was achieved by reducing the initial carbon content, long annealing and ordinary austempering. The suitable silicon content was found to be 2.5% and effective alloying was 0.25% Mo and 0.7% Cu to obtain maximum impact energy and elongation.     

Damage mechanism of a nodular cast iron under the very high cycle fatigue regime

Fatigue behaviour in the very high cycle regime (VHCF) of 10¹⁰ cycles were investigated with a cast iron (GS51) under ultrasonic fatigue test system (20 kHz) in ambient air at room temperature with a stress ratio R = −1.

The influence of frequency was examined by comparing similar data generated on conventional servo hydraulic test systems. An advanced, high-speed, and high-sensitivity infrared imaging system was used to measure the temperature changes during ultrasonic fatigue test at various load levels caused by internal damping due to a very high frequency cycling. The temperature field on the surface specimen was determined by using a non-destructive measurement technique called infrared pyrometer. An infrared camera made up of a matrix of 320 × 240 detectors was used.

The S-N curves obtained show that fatigue failure occurred beyond 10⁹ cycles, fatigue limit does not exist for the cast iron and there is no evidence of frequency effect on the test results. A detailed study on fatigue specimens subjected to ultrasonic frequency shows that the temperature evolution of the cast iron specimen is very evident, the temperature increased just at the beginning of the test, the temperature increased depending on the maximum stress amplitude. Under the current test conditions, the high cycle fatigue (VHCF) behaviour of the cast iron exhibited a typical fatigue crack growth process, that is, fatigue initiation takes place always at the surface graphite or subsurface void; the distinctive stable fatigue crack growth zone can be found around the fatigue crack initiation site, the change of fatigue initiation site from surface to subsurface is associated with the complex effects of applied maximum stress level, surface condition.

Under lower stress amplitude and high cycle condition, surface graphite fatigue initiation is predominantly depended on cyclic stress amplitude; subsurface void fatigue initiation is determined by maximum cyclic stress.

In the process of small crack propagation, the temperature in local plastic zone increase very sharply. The temperature field of ultrasonic fatigue specimen can be changed with the cooling condition; internal heating can accelerate surface fatigue crack initiation and propagation.

Fatigue properties in VHCF regime were studied for cast iron (GS51) at 20 kHz frequency and for the first time, crack initiation and propagation stages were analyzed using a high-sensitivity infrared camera. The new Paris's model for fish eye formation in the gigacycle fatigue were also confirmed by this study.     

等温淬火温度对奥贝球铁水脆化行为的影响

研究了等温淬火温度对奥贝球铁(ADI)水脆化行为的影响，水附着条件下不同等温淬火温度处理的ADI均发生水脆化行为，抗拉强度和伸长率显著降低；但随着等温淬火温度升高，ADI的水脆化程度降低。高强度的ADI、淬火回火球铁和珠光体球铁均发生水脆化行为，而铁素体含量高的铸态球铁和铁素体球铁无明显的水脆化行为。     

等温处理工艺对等温淬火球铁显微组织和硬度的影响

上世纪70年代,通过奥氏体等温淬火开发出抗拉强度大于1000MPa、伸长率大于15％的高强度、高韧性等温淬火球铁。利用正交试验法,研究了等温淬火工艺参数对等温淬火球铁显微组织及硬度的影响。结果发现,在设计的试验工艺内全部可以得到以针状铁素体和富碳奥氏体为基体的等温淬火球铁组织;在等温淬火工艺中,等温淬火温度对试样硬度影响最为显著,其次是奥氏体化温度与奥氏体化时间,而等温淬火时间对于试样硬度的影响最小。     

盐浴等温淬火对高合金白口铸铁组织及性能的影响

研究了盐浴等温淬火对高合金白口铸铁组织和性能的影响。结果表明：不同温度盐浴淬火，高合金白口铸铁共晶碳化物形态及分布基本没有变化，基体组织是过冷奥氏体在不同温度下的转变产物；盐浴等温淬火可提高高合金白口铸铁的冲击韧性及耐磨损性能。随着盐浴等温淬火温度的提高，高合金白口铸铁冲击韧性、硬度有所下降。     

Influence of alloying elements Cu,Ni and Mo on mechanical properties and austemperability of austempered ductile iron

Abstract

Austempered ductile iron (ADI) is the most recent development in the nodular iron family. The austempering treatment produces a unique microstructure, ausferrite, which provides high mechanical strength combined with ductility, toughness, and good fatigue and wear resistance. The effect of alloying elements Cu, Ni and Mo on the mechanical properties and austemperability of ADI is reported. The mechanical strength and toughness decreased with the addition of Mo, but both wear resistance and austemperability increased with Mo content.     

贝氏体球铁中位错密度的测定及其影响因素

采用Ｘ射线衍射法及新的线形分析理论，准确地测定了不同工艺条件下贝氏体球铁的位错密度．分析了化学成分、等温温度、回火处理及形变处理等与位错密度的关系．实验结果证明，位错密度的增加与贝氏体的晶粒细化伴生．     

An apparatus for four-point bending fatigue testing of materials in a scanning electron microscope and its application to nodular cast iron

The design and construction of an apparatus to study four-point bending fatigue testing in a scanning electron microscope is described. This instrument allows the propagation of a fatigue crack through the sample microstructure to be followed in detail. Loads on the sample as well as sample displacement can be measured during testing. Design of the accompanying software is also described, as are the results of preliminary tests on nodular cast iron. A close relationship between the fatigue crack path and the sample microstructure is noted, particularly in the brittle graphite phase.     

50%～30%中、低蠕化率铸铁的性能及应用

综述了灰铁、蠕铁和球铁中的石墨形态与其力学性能及热力学性能的关系。铸铁材料的实际性能是随着蠕化率或球化率的变化而变化,也就是随着球状、团状、团絮状、蠕虫状石墨的数量比例变化而变化的;中、低蠕化率(蠕化率50%～30%,即球化率50%～70%)铸铁处于由蠕铁向球铁变化的中、后段,具有优于球铁的铸造性能、致密性、导热性、减震性和切削加工性能,同时具有优于高蠕化率蠕铁的常温和高温力学性能。指出中、低蠕化率铸铁适用于需要较高强度和冷热疲劳性能的场合。     

Austempering and austempered ductile iron microstructure in copper alloyed ductile iron

The variation in the austempered microstructure, the volume fraction of retained austenite, X_λ, the average carbon content of retained austenite, C_λ, their product X_λC_λ and the size of bainitic ferrite needles with austempering temperature for 0.6% Cu alloyed ductile iron have been investigated for three austempering temperatures of 270, 330, and 380 °C for 60 min at each temperature after austenitization at 850 °C for 120 min. The austempering temperature not only affects the morphology of bainitic ferrite but also that of retained austenite. There is an increase in the amount of retained austenite, its carbon content, and size of bainitic ferrite needles with the rise in austempering temperature. The influence of austempering time on the structure has been studied on the samples austempered at 330 °C. The increase in the austempering time increases the amount of retained austenite and its carbon content, which ultimately reaches a plateau.     

奥贝球铁磨粒磨损性能的研究

奥贝球铁磨粒磨损性能的研究郭新立，孟祥康，刘治国，董鄂（南京大学）（南京理工大学）奥贝球铁是新一代的球墨铸铁，与普通球铁相比，奥贝球铁具有较高的强度、韧性、抗点蚀疲劳、弯曲疲劳和耐磨性能，被视为７０年代以来铸铁冶金的重大突破￣［１、４］。其应用目标之...     

汽车排气歧管用球墨铸铁的热疲劳性研究

通过对汽车排气歧管材料高硅钼球墨铸铁和高镍球墨铸铁进行热疲劳试验,发现热疲劳裂纹总是出现在晶界处和碳化物附近,碳化物的粗大容易促生裂纹,并且裂纹处的氧化作用会加剧裂纹的扩展.同时发现,热疲劳裂纹总是在试样表面出现,并且加热温度越高越容易出现疲劳裂纹.在相同条件下,高硅钼球墨铸铁更容易发生热疲劳现象.     

The use of resistivity to investigate the effect of austenitising temperature on austempering of ductile iron in the upper ausferrite region

The resistivity of a ductile iron with 0.77% Cu, 0.5% Ni during austempering at 400 °C was measured to investigate the influence of austenitising temperature on the kinetics of phase transformation. The specimens were heat-treated in a vacuum furnace by passing through a direct current which was monitored and controlled with a personal computer to follow the heating and cooling scheme. Three temperatures, 950, 900 and 850 °C were used to austenitise the ductile iron matrix. After a holding period at the austenitising temperature, the specimens were quenched, with a liquid nitrogen spray, to 400 °C to conduct the isothermal transformation. During the isothermal transformation at 400 °C, the resistivity varied with time and clearly showed three sequences of transformation: stage 1; the process window; and stage 2; The changes of resistivity around the process window were related to the volume fraction of retained austenite which was measured by the X- ray diffraction technique. A model is then proposed to predict the volume fraction of retained austenite from the change of resistivity for austempering during the period of the process window. A further kinetics analysis demonstrates that the reaction of all three stages obey the Johnson-Mehl equation with average values of exponent n equal to 1.25, 1.07, and 1.48 respectively. It is also shown that increasing the austenitising temperature will reduce the reaction rate and suppress the start of the austempering reaction.