Reduction of air pollutant emissions using renewable energy sources for power generation in Cyprus

In this paper, the options of using Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in the power system of Cyprus are examined in order to reduce air pollutant emissions. Power generation is the major contributor to total emissions in Cyprus with a share of 36% in carbon dioxide (CO₂), 62% in sulfur dioxide (SO₂), 20% in nitrogen oxides (NO_x) and 55% in nitrous oxide (N₂O) emission according to the emission inventory for the year 2002. The emissions reduction potential in the energy system of Cyprus is notable since the use of RES for power generation has so far been negligible. The national action plan for the promotion of electricity production from RES for the years 2009–2013 includes large-scale projects of total capacity target 211 MW_el, and in case is accomplished, there will be significant production of electricity, which is estimated to 11.2% of 2008 gross production. The resulting reduction of air pollutant emissions corresponds to 453 kt/yr of CO₂, 4.69 kt/yr of SO₂, 1.21 kt/yr of NO_x, 0.26 kt/yr of N₂O emissions and exceeds the emissions of Moni power station, the oldest in Cyprus and the one with the lower efficiency. Emissions reduction potential is even larger, since additional measures for rational use of electricity together with RES applications in final consumption sectors could contribute to decrease the demanded amount of electricity.     

Modeling climate feedbacks to electricity demand: The case of China

This paper is an empirical investigation of the effects of climate on the use of electricity by consumers and producers in urban and rural areas within China. It takes advantage of an unusual combination of temporal and regional data sets in order to estimate temperature, as well as price and income elasticities of electricity demand. The estimated positive temperature/electric power feedback implies a continually increasing use of energy to produce electric power which, in China, is primarily based on coal. In the absence of countervailing measures, this will contribute to increased emissions, increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, and increases in greenhouse warming.     

Overview analysis of bioenergy from livestock manure management in Taiwan

The emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from the livestock manure are becoming significant energy and environmental issues in Taiwan. However, the waste management (i.e., anaerobic digestion) can produce the biogas associated with its composition mostly consisting of methane (CH₄), which is now considered as a renewable energy with emphasis on electricity generation and other energy uses. The objective of this paper was to present an overview analysis of biogas-to-bioenergy in Taiwan, which included five elements: current status of biogas sources and their energy utilizations, potential of biogas (methane) generation from livestock manure management, governmental regulations and policies for promoting biogas, benefits of GHGs (i.e., methane) emission reduction, and research and development status of utilizing livestock manure for biofuel production. In the study, using the livestock population data surveyed by the Council of Agriculture (Taiwan) and the emission factors recommended by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the potential of methane generation from livestock manure management in Taiwan during the period of 1995–2007 has been estimated to range from 36 to 56 Gg year⁻¹, indicating that the biogas (methane) from swine and dairy cattle is abundant. Based on the characteristics of swine manure, the maximum potential of methane generation could reach to around 400 Gg year⁻¹. With a practical basis of the total swine population (around 4300 thousand heads) from the farm scale of over 1000 heads, a preliminary analysis showed the following benefits: methane reduction of 21.5 Gg year⁻¹, electricity generation of 7.2 × 10⁷ kW-h year⁻¹, equivalent electricity charge saving of 7.2 × 10⁶ US$ year⁻¹, and equivalent carbon dioxide mitigation of 500 Gg year⁻¹.     

Energy inputs and crop yield relationships in greenhouse winter crop tomato production

In this study, energy use patterns and the relationship between energy inputs and yield for single crop (winter) greenhouse tomato production were examined in Antalya province, one of the most important greenhouse centres in Turkey. Data were collected using face-to-face surveys from 85 farms producing winter greenhouse tomatoes. The results indicated that the bulk of energy was consumed in fertilizer (38.22%), electricity (27.09%), manure (17.33%) and diesel-oil (13.65%). Average yield and energy consumption were calculated as 57,905.1 kg/ha and 61,434.5 MJ/ha, respectively. Results also determined an output–input ratio of 0.8 and a respective energy productivity and specific energy of 1.061 MJ/t and 0.94 kg/MJ. In addition, the Cobb Douglas production function was applied to test the relationship among different forms of energy consumption. The findings suggested that single crop tomato producers must optimize their use of indirect energy resources. Single crop producers applied an excess use of chemicals, resulting in an inverse effect on yield as well as imposing risks to natural resources and human health. This research suggested an expansion in energy use training opportunities to greenhouse farmers in the region.     

Energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions during the production of a passenger car in China

Rapidly-rising oil demand and associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from road vehicles in China, passenger cars in particular, have attracted worldwide attention. As most studies to date were focused on the vehicle operation stage, the present study attempts to evaluate the energy demand and GHG emissions during the vehicle production process, which usually consists of two major stages—material production and vehicle assembly. Energy demand and GHG emissions in the material production stage are estimated using the following data: the mass of the vehicle, the distribution of material used by mass, and energy demand and GHG emissions associated with the production of each material. Energy demand in the vehicle assembly stage is estimated as a linear function of the vehicle mass, while the associated GHG emission is estimated according to the primary energy sources. It is concluded that the primary energy demand, petroleum demand and GHG emissions during the production of a medium-sized passenger car in China are 69,108 MJ, 14,545 MJ and 6575 kg carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂-eq). Primary energy demand, petroleum demand and GHG emissions in China’s passenger car fleets in 2005 would be increased by 22%, 5% and 30%, respectively, if the vehicle production stage were included.     

Life cycle analysis of vehicles powered by a fuel cell and by internal combustion engine for Canada

The transportation sector is responsible for a great percentage of the greenhouse gas emissions as well as the energy consumption in the world. Canada is the second major emitter of carbon dioxide in the world. The need for alternative fuels, other than petroleum, and the need to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gases emissions are the main reasons behind this study. In this study, a full life cycle analysis of an internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) and a fuel cell vehicle (FCV) has been carried out. The impact of the material and fuel used in the vehicle on energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions is analyzed for Canada. The data collected from the literature shows that the energy consumption for the production of 1 kg of aluminum is five times higher than that of 1 kg of steel, although higher aluminum content makes vehicles lightweight and more energy efficient during the vehicle use stage. Greenhouse gas regulated emissions and energy use in transportation (GREET) software has been used to analyze the fuel life cycle. The life cycle of the fuel consists of obtaining the raw material, extracting the fuel from the raw material, transporting, and storing the fuel as well as using the fuel in the vehicle. Four different methods of obtaining hydrogen were analyzed; using coal and nuclear power to produce electricity and extraction of hydrogen through electrolysis and via steam reforming of natural gas in a natural gas plant and in a hydrogen refueling station. It is found that the use of coal to obtain hydrogen generates the highest emissions and consumes the highest energy. Comparing the overall life cycle of an ICEV and a FCV, the total emissions of an FCV are 49% lower than an ICEV and the energy consumption of FCV is 87% lower than that of ICEV. Further, CO₂ emissions during the hydrogen fuel production in a central plant can be easily captured and sequestrated. The comparison carried out in this study between FCV and ICEV is extended to the use of recycled material. It is found that using 100% recycled material can reduce energy consumption by 45% and carbon dioxide emissions by 42%, mainly due to the reduced use of electricity during the manufacturing of the material.     

Comparative life cycle assessment of hydrogen and other selected fuels

A streamlined life cycle assessment (LCA) is reported of a nuclear-based copper–chlorine (Cu–Cl) hydrogen production cycle, including estimates of fossil fuel energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Calculations revealed that the process requires 474 kJ of fossil fuel energy per MJ of hydrogen, which is less than for other hydrogen production processes. Moreover, GHG emissions are estimated to be 27 gCO₂e per MJ of hydrogen, which is only slightly higher than the corresponding value for wind-based hydrogen production. A sensitivity analysis demonstrated that the performance of the system could be further improved at higher yields of hydrogen. Although the system significantly outperformed fossil-based gasoline and hydrogen production pathways, the integrated nuclear and thermochemical cycle still requires significant research and development before commercialization is possible.     

Energy consumption and CO2 emissions of potato peel and sugarcane biohydrogen production pathways, applied to Portuguese road transportation

This paper analyses the energy consumption and CO₂ emissions of biological hydrogen production from sugarcane and potato peels using life cycle assessment methodology for the Portuguese scenario. Potato peels are assumed to be produced locally from Portuguese potato cultivation. Sugarcane is assumed to be imported from Brazil and fermented in Portugal. The uncertainty is quantified by a Monte Carlo approach. Biohydrogen was compared with natural gas reforming, electrolysis and other energy resources such as diesel and electricity. Between bioH₂ feedstocks, sugarcane stands out with the lowest values for energy consumption and CO₂ emissions with 0.30–0.34 MJ of consumed energy and 24–31 g of CO₂ emitted per 1 MJ of H₂ produced. However these results do not have a major contribution to the Portuguese energy independency problem. On the other hand potato peels feedstocks are more attractive, presenting values of 0.49–0.61 MJ/MJ_H2 and 60-77 gCO₂/MJ_H2. According to Portuguese production capabilities, it is estimated that biohydrogen will be able to supply 3100 vehicles of a typical Portuguese urban taxi fleet or up to 1.4 million passenger cars with a daily commuting distance of 30 km.     

Industrial energy efficiency and climate change mitigation

Industry contributes directly and indirectly (through consumed electricity) about 37% of the global greenhouse gas emissions, of which over 80% is from energy use. Total energy-related emissions, which were 9.9 GtCO₂ in 2004, have grown by 65% since 1971. Even so, industry has almost continuously improved its energy efficiency over the past decades. In the near future, energy efficiency is potentially the most important and cost-effective means for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from industry. This paper discusses the potential contribution of industrial energy-efficiency technologies and policies to reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions to 2030.

A decomposition analysis of CO2 emissions from energy use: Turkish case

Environmental problems, especially “climate change” due to significant increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gases, have been on the agenda since 1980s. Among the greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the most important one and is responsible for more than 60% of the greenhouse effect. The objective of this study is to identify the factors that contribute to changes in CO₂ emissions for the Turkish economy by utilizing Log Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method developed by Ang (2005) [Ang, B.W., 2005. The LMDI approach to decomposition analysis: a practical guide. Energy Policy 33, 867–871]. Turkish economy is divided into three aggregated sectors, namely agriculture, industry and services, and energy sources used by these sectors are aggregated into four groups: solid fuels, petroleum, natural gas and electricity. This study covers the period 1970–2006, which enables us to investigate the effects of different macroeconomic policies on carbon dioxide emissions through changes in shares of industries and use of different energy sources. Our analysis shows that the main component that determines the changes in CO₂ emissions of the Turkish economy is the economic activity. Even though important changes in the structure of the economy during 1970–2006 period are observed, structure effect is not a significant factor in changes in CO₂ emissions, however intensity effect is.     

Life-cycle energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions for electricity generation and supply in China

The Well-to-Meter (WTM) analysis module in the Tsinghua-CA3EM model has been used to examine the primary fossil energy consumption (PFEC) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for electricity generation and supply in China. The results show that (1) the WTM PFEC and GHG emission intensities for the 2007 Chinese electricity mix are 3.247 MJ/MJ and 297.688 g carbon dioxide of equivalent (gCO_2,e)/MJ, respectively; (2) power generation is the main contributing sub-stage; (3) the coal-power pathway is the only major contributor of PFEC (96.23%) and GHG emissions (97.08%) in the 2007 mix; and (4) GHG emissions intensity in 2020 will be reduced to 220.470 gCO_2,e/MJ with the development of nuclear and renewable energy and to 169.014 gCO_2,e/MJ if carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology is employed. It is concluded that (1) the current high levels of PFEC and GHG emission for electricity in China are largely due to the dominant role of coal in the power-generation sector and the relatively low efficiencies during all the sub-stages from resource extraction to final energy consumption and (2) the development of nuclear and renewable energy as well as low carbon technologies such as CCS can significantly reduce GHG emissions from electricity.     

Estimation of methane and nitrous oxide emission from livestock and poultry in China during 1949–2003

To investigate the greenhouse gases emission from enteric fermentation and manure management of livestock and poultry industry in China, the present study presents a systematic estimation of methane and nitrous oxide emission during 1949–2003, based on the local measurement and IPCC guidelines. As far as greenhouse gases emittion is concerned among livestock swine is found to hold major position followed by goat and sheep, while among poultry chicken has the major place and is followed by duck and geese. Methane emission from enteric fermentation is estimated to have increased from 3.04 Tg in 1949 to 10.13 Tg in 2003, an averaged annual growth rate of 2.2%, and methane emission from manure management has increased from 0.16 Tg in 1949 to 1.06 Tg in 2003, an annual growth rate of 3.5%, while nitrous oxide emission from manure management has increased from 47.76 to 241.2 Gg in 2003, with an annual growth rate of 3.0%. The total greenhouse gas emission has increased from 82.01 Tg CO₂ Eq. in 1949 to 309.76 Tg CO₂ Eq. in 2003, an annual growth rate of 2.4%. The estimation of livestock methane and nitrous oxide emissions in China from 1949 to 2003 is shown to be consistent with a linear growth model, and the reduction of greenhouse gas emission is thus considered an urgent and arduous task for the Chinese livestock industry.     

Determination and modelling of energy consumption in wheat production using neural networks: “A case study in Canterbury province, New Zealand”

This study was conducted on irrigated and dryland wheat fields in Canterbury in the 2007-2008 harvest year based on an extensive process of data collection involving a questionnaire and interviews. Total energy consumption in wheat production was estimated at 22,566 MJ/ha. On average, fertilizer and electricity were used more than other energy sources, at around 10,654 (47%) and 4870 (22%) MJ/ha, respectively. The energy consumption for wheat production in irrigated and dryland farming systems was estimated at 25,600 and 17,458 MJ/ha, respectively.In this study, several direct and indirect factors have been identified to create an artificial neural networks (ANN) model to predict energy use in wheat production. The final model can predict energy consumption based on farm conditions (size of crop area), farmers’ social considerations (level of education), and energy inputs (N and P use and irrigation frequency), and it predicts energy use in Canterbury arable farms with an error margin of ±12% (±2900 MJ/ha). Furthermore, comparison between the ANN model and a Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) model showed that the ANN model can predict energy consumption relatively better than the MLR multiple model on the selected training set and validation set.     

On-farm energetics of mango production in Nigeria

The aims of this study were to determine direct input energy, indirect energy and other energy use indices in mango production in a group of mango plantation of a research farm in Nigeria. The study also estimated the economic indices of mango production in the study area and energy potentials of mango by-products. The average energy consumption of the plantations investigated in this study is 15,015.16 MJ ha⁻¹. Out of the total energy, 93% was direct and 7% was indirect. Renewable energy accounted for 21% and energy usage efficiency was found to be 1.3. The total energy input into the production of 1 kg of mango was estimated to be 0.70 MJ. The dominant contribution to input was energy in the form of diesel used in tractor operation and captive power generation (56%), followed by human labor used for land preparation, cultural practices and harvesting (33%), machinery (5%) and chemicals, mainly herbicides (4%). The use of energetically available residues of mango could give an average value addition of 57,067 MJ/ha. The cost of mango production per hectare was found to be 2246 $ ha⁻¹. As a result of benefit-cost ratio value (1.24), energy use efficiency and the energy value addition from mango residues, mango production was found to be economically efficient in the study area.     

Energy inputs and crop yield relationship in greenhouse tomato production

This study examines energy use patterns and the relationship between energy inputs and yield for greenhouse tomato production in Antalya province of Turkey. The data used in this study were based on cross-sectional data collected from growers by using a face to face survey. The results revealed that diesel (34.35%), fertilizer (27.59%), electricity (16.01%), chemicals (10.19%) and human power (8.64%) consumed the bulk of energy. In the surveyed farms, average yield and energy consumption were calculated as around 160000 kg/ha and 106716.2 MJ/ha, respectively. The results also showed that output–input, specific energy and energy productivity were 1.2, 12380.3 MJ/t and 0.09 kg/MJ, respectively. The results implied that small size farms were more efficient than large ones in terms of output–input ratio. An econometric model was developed to estimate the impact of energy inputs on yield. Therefore, tomato yield, an endogenous variable was assumed to be a function of exogenous variables; fertilizer, chemicals, machinery, human, water for irrigation and seed energy. The empirical results indicated that all exogenous variables except seed energy were found statistically significant and contributed to yield. Among all statistically significant exogenous variables, human, fertilizer, water, chemicals and machinery were ranked in terms of elasticities. These results indicate that the Turkish greenhouse industry heavily depends on fossil fuels.     

Ecological and economic efficiency of the use of alternative energy technologies including hydrogen to reduce of the anthropogenic load in the central ecological area of the Baikal natural territory

The central ecological area of the Baikal natural territory covers some districts of the Irkutsk oblast and the Republic of Buryatia, located on the coast of the Lake Baikal. Due to the natural uniqueness and special status of doing economic activity, the assessment of the impact on the environment in this territory is very importance.An analysis of the functioning of energy objects showed that a significant part of the territory is provided with a centralized electricity supply with developed electric grid infrastructure. There are only a few remote settlements with autonomous electricity supply from diesel power plants.The main sources of pollution are numerous boiler houses that provide heat to the population, social and administrative institutions. In all, there are 98 heat energy sources in the territory, of which 66 (or 70%) use coal.The problems of environmental pollution are mainly caused by the use of coal in a small boiler house, worn-out equipment, and the lack of an appropriate level of flue gas treatment. The total estimated emission of pollutants into the atmosphere from heat energy sources is estimated at 20–25 thousand tons per year.In order to reduce the anthropogenic impact from energy objects, it is advisable to use renewable energy sources, hydrogen technologies, coal substitution with environmentally friendly fuels, use of electricity for heat energy supply, installation of environmental protection equipment and the implementation of energy-saving measures.The methodological approach and simulation models developed at MESI SB RAS were used to determine the competitiveness conditions of alternative technologies and energy carriers.The studies evaluated the environmental and economic efficiency of energy production technologies by using specific indicators: the capital intensity of reducing 1 ton of emissions and environmental capital return by 1 million rubles for the conditions of the central ecological area.The potential for reducing emissions into the atmosphere by use of renewable energy sources in autonomous energy supply areas is less than 1% of the current level of total emissions from energy objects. The potential for reducing emissions by replacing boiler houses with a capacity of less than 0,2 Gcal/h by a heat pump units is no more than 12%.The biggest environmental effect can be achieved by using alternative energy carriers including hydrogen instead of coal. Moreover, the potential for reducing emissions is 60% of the total emissions. In addition to these activities are the least capital intensive.The most effectively is the replacement of coal with natural gas. Rational gas consumption in the coastal areas of Lake Baikal is estimated at 175–190 thousand tons of equivalent fuel. The real possibility of transferring small boiler houses to gas arises during the construction of an export gas pipeline from Russia (through the territory of the Irkutsk oblast) to China via Mongolia, or by the small-scale production of liquefied natural gas.The most currently implemented direction is the use of electricity for heat energy supply. The potential volume of electricity to replace coal in boiler houses of the central ecological area is 1,3 TWh per year, however, the competitive electricity tariff is estimated less than 2 US c/kWh, which is several times lower than current tariffs.Hydrogen technology is currently very capital-intensive, but using it in a way similar to using electricity for heat eliminates pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions.Now days, there are no effective financial mechanisms aimed at stimulating the reduction of the anthropogenic pressure on the environment from existing energy sources, including for the use of alternative technologies. As the result, significant financial support is required in the form of special cost compensation mechanisms for energy producers and/or consumers.     

Thirty years of domestic solar hot water systems use in Greece – energy and environmental benefits – future perspectives

The effort to reduce the dependence on imported crude oil in Greece, after the oil crises in the '70s, has resulted, among others, in a total installed area of 3.57 million m² solar collectors in 2007, making Greece one of the pioneers in the use of domestic solar hot water system (DSHWS) worldwide.In the present work, the contribution of DSHWS to the reduction of conventional energy and greenhouse gases and other air pollutant emissions in Greece from its early years in mid '70s up to now is assessed. DSHWS market penetration, solar system technological changes and development and demographic changes in association with the climatic conditions in all regions of the country have been taken into account in order to calculate energy conservation and emissions reduction. The results show that the conserved energy ranges from 21.27 GW h_el (0.1% of the domestic sector energy use) in 1978 to 1513 GW h_el (2.4%) in 2007, resulting in an abatement of CO₂ emissions, which for the year 2000 was 1.67 Mt, exceeding by 76% the objectives of the Greek Program of “Climatic Change”, which indicated savings of 0.95 Mt CO₂ for 2000.Moreover DSHWS maximum technical potential is assessed to be about three times the current installed area, showing that they can play an important role in energy end environmental policy of the country.     

Exploring impacts of process technology development and regional factors on life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of corn stover ethanol

This paper examines impacts of regional factors affecting biomass and process input supply chains and ongoing technology development on the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of ethanol production from corn stover in the U.S. Corn stover supply results in GHG emissions from −6 gCO₂eq./MJ ethanol (Macon County, Missouri) to 13 gCO₂eq./MJ ethanol (Hardin County, Iowa), reflecting location-specific soil carbon and N₂O emissions responses to stover removal. Biorefinery emissions based on the 2011 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) process model are the single greatest emissions source (18 gCO₂eq./MJ ethanol) and are approximately double those assessed for the 2002 NREL design model, due primarily to the inclusion of GHG-intensive inputs (caustic, ammonia, glucose). Energy demands of on-site enzyme production included in the 2011 design contribute to reducing the electricity co-product and associated emissions credit, which is also dependent on the GHG-intensity of regional electricity supply. Life cycle emissions vary between 1.5 and 22 gCO₂eq./MJ ethanol (2011 design) depending on production location (98%–77% reduction vs. gasoline). Using system expansion for co-product allocation, ethanol production in studied locations meet the Energy Independence and Security Act emissions requirements for cellulosic biofuels; however, regional factors and on-going technology developments significantly influence these results.     

Addressing uncertainty in life-cycle carbon intensity in a national low-carbon fuel standard

Policies formulated to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, such as a low-carbon fuel standard, frequently rely on life-cycle assessment (LCA) to estimate emissions, but LCA results are often highly uncertain. This study develops life-cycle models that quantitatively and qualitatively describe the uncertainty and variability in GHG emissions for both fossil fuels and ethanol and examines mechanisms to reduce those uncertainties in the policy process. Uncertainty regarding emissions from gasoline is non-negligible, with an estimated 90% confidence interval ranging from 84 to 100 g CO₂e/MJ. Emissions from biofuels have greater uncertainty. The widths of the 90% confidence intervals for corn and switchgrass ethanol are estimated to be on the order of 100 g CO₂e/MJ, and removing emissions from indirect land use change still leaves significant remaining uncertainty. Though an opt-in policy mechanism can reduce some uncertainty by incentivizing producers to self-report fuel production parameters, some important parameters, such as land use change emissions and nitrogen volatilization, cannot be accurately measured and self-reported. Low-carbon fuel policies should explicitly acknowledge, quantify, and incorporate uncertainty in life cycle emissions in order to more effectively achieve emissions reductions. Two complementary ways to incorporate this uncertainty in low carbon fuel policy design are presented.     

Understanding energy systems change in Canada: 1. Decomposition of total energy intensity

Between 1995 and 2010, the total energy intensity (E/GDP, PJ/Gross Domestic Product in 2002$) of the Canadian economy declined by 23% or − 2.64 MJ/$. To understand why, the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMD-I) method was used to decompose a large body of government statistical data supporting the observed E/GDP decline. The analysis shows that (a) 48% (1.27 MJ/$) of the decline was associated with an inter-sector structural change in the economy (i.e. an increased contribution to the total GDP of the low energy-using commercial and institutional sector compared with the high energy-using manufacturing and heavy industry sectors); (b) 24% (0.62 MJ/$) was attributed to the impact of the Canadian GDP growing faster than population; (c) 22% (0.58 MJ/$) of the decline was associated with an overall decrease in business energy intensity. A deeper analysis of business sectors shows a positive impact of 0.4 MJ/$ from increased energy intensity in the oil and gas sector, offset by a 0.98 MJ/$ decline due to energy intensity declines in the other business sectors; (d) 6.3% (0.17 MJ/$) of the decline was associated with an improvement in the energy intensity of households, mostly from residential energy use rather than personal transportation energy use. These results provide insights for policy makers regarding those aspects of the Canadian economy that contribute to, or work against, efforts to transform energy systems toward sustainability.