Performance on Piagetian tasks of Black children of differing socioeconomic levels.

233 Black children in Grades 1–6 and from 2 socioeconomic (SES) levels, as determined by eligibility for the school lunch program and parents' occupations, were given 5 Piagetian tasks to determine if differences in SES were associated with differences in cognitive development levels. Measures of reasoning, seriation, classification, causation, and conservation were used. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that in all 5 variables the higher SES Ss performed better than lower SES Ss. The conservation measure showed distinct developmental differences between the high- and low-SES Ss. Examination of the means suggested only a small difference in developmental level between the SES groups on the other tasks. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessment of taxonomic encoding categories in different populations.

Assessed the degree of taxonomic category encoding in 160 low-socioeconomic status (SES) Black and middle SES White children. D. D Wickens's (see record 1970-04540-001) release from proactive interference task was used to index categorical encoding of animal and clothing items. Build-up and release from proactive interference was observed for each population at 2 different grade levels (2nd and 4th). The degree of proactive interference build-up and release was not affected by either population membership or grade level. These results provide conclusive evidence of the availability of taxonomic encoding categories in the groups sampled. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's self-image disparity: Effects of age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender.

Assessed developmental and experiential determinants of self-image disparity in 80 2nd and 5th graders. There were 8 groups formed on the basis of socioeconomic status (SES), ethnicity, and gender within each grade. Consistent with predictions generated by developmental theory, self-image disparity was found to be positively related to CA. Although the results were not uniform across the 3 self-image instruments employed, the larger disparity in older Ss appeared to be a function of both decreased self-evaluations and increased ideal self-images. Gender, SES, and ethnic group membership—characteristics thought to subsume pervasive experiential differences—were also found to affect self-image. Males had larger self-image disparities than females, Whites had larger disparities and higher ideal self images than Blacks, and SES affected self-image differentially for the 2nd and 5th graders. Findings indicate that an understanding of children's self-images requires a consideration of both developmental and experiential factors. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Home environment, social status, and mental test performance.

Compared an environmental process measure (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment Inventory—HOME) and socioeconomic status (SES) measures in terms of their relations with Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale IQ at 3 yrs of age. Separate analyses were made for 68 Blacks and 37 Whites and for males and females. Results indicate that the HOME measure predicted IQ as well as a combination of HOME and SES measures, whereas there was some loss in predictive power when SES was used by itself (especially in the case of Blacks). It is concluded that HOME appears to be a more accurate index of environmental quality across groups than does SES. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Objective and subjective socioeconomic status and susceptibility to the common cold.

Objective: We ask whether subjective socioeconomic status (SES) predicts who develops a common cold when exposed to a cold virus. Design: 193 healthy men and women ages 21-55 years were assessed for subjective (perceived rank) and objective SES, cognitive, affective and social dispositions, and health practices. Subsequently, they were exposed by nasal drops to a rhinovirus or influenza virus and monitored in quarantine for objective signs of illness and self-reported symptoms. Main Outcome Measures: Infection, signs and symptoms of the common cold, and clinical illness (infection and significant objective signs of illness). Results: Increased subjective SES was associated with decreased risk for developing a cold for both viruses. This association was independent of objective SES and of cognitive, affective and social disposition that might provide alternative spurious (third factor) explanations for the association. Poorer sleep among those with lesser subjective SES may partly mediate the association between subjective SES and colds. Conclusions: Increased Subjective SES is associated with less susceptibility to upper respiratory infection, and this association is independent of objective SES, suggesting the importance of perceived relative rank to health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental capacity and cognitive functioning: Developmental and social class differences.

Hypothesized that social class performance differences of same-age children would be negligible on pure mental (M) capacity measures but would be greater on tasks that confound other variables with M capacity. This hypothesis is anchored in a neo-Piagetian theory of cognitive development (J. Pascual-Leone; see record 1971-07908-001), which gives a central role to an attentional mechanism of limited M capacity that grows monotonically with age. 268 Israeli 8-, 10-, and 12-yr-olds of low or high SES completed 10 cognitive developmental tasks that measured pure M capacity, short-term memory, verbal IQ, and spatial-analytic ability. Results show that M capacity developed similarly in same-age Ss, regardless of SES. Significant differences among the investigated populations were found only in performing tasks that confounded factors of learning and style. Results support the notion that a cognitive development process exists that is universal in stage sequences and in the rate and timing of development. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Biased Language Use in Stereotype Maintenance: The Role of Encoding and Goals.

In 4 studies, the authors investigated the relative impact of biased encoding of information and communication goals on biased language use. A category label (linguistic expectancy bias, Study 1) or a group label (linguistic intergroup bias, Study 2) was presented either before or after a story that participants were asked to communicate. Biased language use only emerged when participants learned about the group membership of the actor or the category label before hearing the story. However, communication goals had an effect on language use at the retrieval stage, independent of encoding (Studies 3 and 4). Although communication goal effects seemed to overwhelm encoding effects, encoding still influenced language use under externally imposed time pressure (Study 3) and self-imposed time constraints (Study 4). This research reaffirms the importance of both cognitive and communicative processes in stereotype maintenance and highlights the conditions under which they each operate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dogmatisme paternel, niveau socio-économique et performance cognitive de pré-adolescent(e)s.

Studied the association among paternal dogmatism, socioeconomic status (SES), and cognitive development using Piagetian tasks. Human subjects: 98 male and female French-Canadian schoolage children and adolescents (aged 144–171 mo) (1st class of students in the secondary school). 98 male French-Canadian adults (aged 32–62 yrs). All Ss were from 2-parent families and consisted of 50 father–daughter and 48 father–son dyads. Paternal dogmatism was measured using the French-Canadian version of the Rokeach Scale by M. Rokeach (1960). Cognitive levels were evaluated using Piaget and Inhelder"s Permutations Test (1951). Ss" SES was measured using B. R. Blishen and H. A. McRobert"s Socioeconomic Index (1976). The results of the cognitive performance tests were analyzed statistically according to age, sex, dogmatism, and SES, using an analysis of variance (ANOVA). (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role attitudes and mathematical ability in 4th-, 8th-, and 11th-grade students from a high socioeconomic area.

Examined gender differences in mathematical ability, relationship of sex-role attitudes to mathematical ability, and age-related changes in attitude toward math. 317 4th, 8th, and 11th graders of high SES were given a sex-role standards attitude scale and either the Stanford Mathematics Achievement Test or the Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test. Overall, no significant differences by sex were found in math ability. Sex-role attitudes related to higher math scores at the 4th- and 8th-grade levels. Females tended to express positive attitudes toward mathematics at all grade levels—significantly more so than males at the 11th-grade level. Implications are discussed in terms of culturally influenced sex-role attitudes and characteristics of this SES. Girls of this SES may receive more parental encouragement and have different role models than average children. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Socioeconomic status, neighborhood social conditions, and neural tube defects

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated the contributions of lower socioeconomic status (SES) and neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics to neural tube defect etiology. The influence of additional factors, including periconceptional multivitamin use and race/ethnicity, was also explored. METHODS: Data derived from a case-control study of California pregnancies from 1989 to 1991. Mothers of 538 (87.8% of eligible) case infants/fetuses with neural tube defects and mothers of 539 (88.2%) nonmalformed infants were interviewed about their SES. Reported addresses were linked to 1990 US census information to characterize neighborhoods. RESULTS: Twofold elevated risks were observed for several SES indicators. Risks were somewhat confounded by vitamin use, race/ethnicity, age, body mass index, and fever but remained elevated after adjustment. A risk gradient was seen with increasing number of lower SES indicators. Women with 1 to 3 and 4 to 6 lower SES indicators had adjusted odds ratios of 1.6 (1.1-2.2) and 3.2 (1.9-5.4), respectively, compared with women with no lower SES indicators. CONCLUSIONS: Both lower SES and residence in a SES-lower neighborhood increased the risk of an neural tube defect-affected pregnancy, with risks increasing across a gradient of SES indicators.     

Social class, conditional communication, and egocentric speech.

Studied social class differences in ability to communicate conditional information using 132 5th-grade white children, who were divided into lower- and middle-socioeconomic-status (SES) groups of approximately equal IQ. Dyadic groupings were formed by combining lower- and middle-SES children into the 4 possible speaker-listener combinations. The task required speakers to use a conditional communication in describing the rules of a game to a listener. Results showed that as listeners, lower- and middle-SES children responded equally well to the communications of both lower- and middle-SES speakers. However, as communicators, the lower-SES children performed more poorly than the middle-SES children. Both lower- and middle-SES listeners had equally great difficulty complying with the instructions provided by the lower-SES communicators. The data suggest that SES differences cannot be attributed to lack of comprehension of the conditional logic. Instead, it appears that the lower-SES children were difficult to understand because of strong tendencies toward egocentric communication patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Le statut socio-économique de la famille et le développement cognitif dans la première année de vie.

Children's cognitive development is related to the quality of the environment in which they grow up. Family socioeconomic status (SES) can be used as a proxy measure for the quality of that environment. To date, no epidemiological study has yet looked at the cognitive development of children under two years of age in relation to SES. The purpose of this study is to evaluate, in a cohort of 2,223 five-month-old infants from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD), the relationship between specific aspects of SES and a key acquisition of the sensorimotor stage, i.e. the ability to coordinate the schemata of vision and prehension in order to grasp an object within reach. In addition to family income and parental level of education, maternal and paternal age at the time of the study, family type, number of children in the family, immigration status of the mother and her age at the birth of her first child were considered in SES. Latent class analyses were performed to estimate the infants' level of cognitive development, then submitted to loglinear modeling to account for the association between the various aspects of SES and cognitive development. Infants of approximately five months of age within the Quebec population differed amongst themselves in terms of their ability to coordinate vision and prehension, although these differences were unrelated to gender. Infants who had the fewest number of siblings, and whose mothers were younger and non-immigrant, were more likely to coordinate vision and prehension at five months, regardless of gender. These results suggest that a significant variation in the rate of cognitive development during the first year of life is associated with certain aspects of family SES. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Black English phonology and learning to read.

Tested the hypothesis that phonological differences between standard and Black English interfere with the ability of beginning readers to learn sound–spelling correspondences in reading. 15 1st graders in each of 3 groups—low-socioeconomic status (SES), Black and White and middle-SES White—were asked to match spoken and written words. Mismatches were created by deleting final spoken consonants or by deleting initial consonants. The hypothesis that Black-English-speaking children of low SES would tend to make a match when final spoken consonants were deleted, whereas the White children of low and middle SES would not, was not supported. Decoding errors revealed that the 3 groups differed in word-attack strategies. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of cognitive function in community-dwelling and institutionalized old people of normal intelligence.

30 people (aged 70–88 yrs) living in the community and 44 institutionalized people (aged 71–89 yrs) were administered a neuropsychological cognitive test battery. Screening procedures ensured that Ss were equivalent in terms of health, age, education, and socioeconomic status (SES). A comparison of groups on a cognitive index derived from the test battery yielded a significant difference even when IQ as derived from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) was factored out. Of the 15 cognitive tests, 8 contributed to the group differences. All 8 tests are sensitive to medial-temporal lobe or frontal lobe damage. Results confirm earlier findings (e.g., G. Winocur et al; see record 1988-20729-001) that people who are functioning well in institutions may have significant cognitive impairment. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Plasticity, person-context relations, and cognitive training in the aged years: A developmental contextual perspective.

Developmental contextualism focuses on changes in fused relations between developing people and their changing contexts. The presence of these relations means that human development is characterized by the potential for systematic change—for plasticity—across life. Research on training cognitive functioning in the aged years provides evidence about plasticity because such investigations attempt to alter developmental trajectories by introducing a revised regimen of person–context relations into people's lives. Moreover, when research is conducted with people in their advanced adult years, it is often interpreted as constituting a conservative test of plasticity. J. I. Campbell and N. Charness (see record 1991-06940-001), P. Gratzinger et al (see record 1991-07064-001), R. Kliegl et al (see record 1991-06962-001), and S. L. Willis and C. S. Nesselroade (see record 1991-07074-001), in the 4 studies reported in this special section, provide evidence that supports developmental contextual ideas about plasticity and about procedures and policies that might create conditions promoting enhancement of cognitive functioning among the aged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Why attend school? Chinese immigrant and European American preschoolers' views and outcomes.

The developing views of the purposes of school learning (PSLs) and related achievement among immigrant Chinese preschoolers and their European American (EA) age-mates were examined. Both culture and socioeconomic status (SES) were considered simultaneously, an often neglected research approach to studying Asian children. One hundred and fifty 4-year-olds—50 each of middle-class Chinese (CHM), low-income Chinese (CHL), and EA children—completed 2 story beginnings about school and were also tested for their language and math achievement. Results showed that 4-year-olds held sophisticated PSLs, ranging from intellectual to social and affect benefits. Large cultural and SES differences also emerged. CHM children mentioned more adult expectation and seriousness of learning than EA children who expressed more positive affect for self and compliance with adults. CHL children mentioned fewest PSLs. Achievement scores for oral expression of both immigrant groups were significantly lower than those of EA children despite similar reading and math achievement. Controlling for culture and SES, the authors found that children's articulated intellectual, but not other purposes, uniquely predicted their achievement in all tested domains. Cultural and SES influences on immigrant children are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concrete operational thinking, diagnosis, and psychopathology in hospitalized schizophrenics.

Assessed the hypothesis that performance on cognitive tests would differentiate among various patient subgroups classified according to diagnosis and chronicity. 66 acute and chronic male schizophrenic inpatients were administered tests of conservation, class inclusion, and geometric drawing. Results show that acute Ss achieved significantly higher scores on 4 cognitive subtests than did chronic nonparanoids, but differences between chronic paranoids and nonparanoids were not significant. Ratings of psychopathology dimensions, especially conceptual dysfunction, discriminated significantly among Ss at 3 levels of performance on conservation tests. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Suicide in urban New South Wales, Australia 1985-1994: socio-economic and migrant interactions

Variation of suicide with socio-economic status (SES) in urban NSW (Australia) during 1985-1994, by sex and country or region of birth, was examined using Poisson regression analysis of vital statistics and population data (age >? approximately 15 yr). Quintiles of SES were defined by municipality of residence and comparisons of suicide by SES were adjusted for age and country (or region) of birth (COB), and examined by COB. Risk of suicide in females was 28% that of males for all adults and 21% for youth (age 15-24 yr). Suicide risk was lower in males from southern Europe, Middle East and Asia, and higher in northern and eastern European males, compared to the Australian-born. Risks for suicide increased significantly with decreasing SES in males, but not in females. The relationship of male suicide and SES was stronger when controlled for COB. For males, the relative risk of suicide, adjusted for age and COB, was 66% higher in the lowest SES quintile compared to the highest quintile. and 39% higher for youth (age 15-24 yr). For male suicide, the population attributable fraction for SES (less than the highest quintile) was 27%. Analysis of SES differentials in male suicide according to COB indicated a significant inverse suicide gradient in relation to SES for the Australian-born and those born in New Zealand and the United Kingdom or Eire, but not in non-English speaking COB groups, except for Asia. For Australian-born males, suicide risk was 71% higher in the lowest SES group (compared to the highest), adjusted for age. These findings indicate that SES plays an important role in male suicide rates among the Australian-born and migrants from English-speaking countries and Asia, and among youth; but not in female suicide, nor suicide in most non-English speaking migrant groups. Reduction in SES differentials through economic and social policies may reduce male suicide in lower SES groups and should be seen to be at least as important as individual level interventions.