Viewing imitation as child responsiveness: A link between teaching and discipline domains of socialization.

The authors observed 106 children's imitation and responses to maternal control at 14 and 22 months. Imitation was observed in a teaching task in which mothers modeled 3 standard pretend-play sequences. Responses to control were observed in typical discipline contexts. Girls imitated more than boys. Responsive imitation measures were coherent and longitudinally stable and correlated significantly with responsiveness to maternal control. The authors propose that a young child's willingness to imitate his or her parent in a teaching context and to comply in a control context both reflect a responsive or receptive stance toward parental socialization. The consistency of children's responsiveness across contexts has implications for both sociomoral and cognitive development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The child's perception of the parent.

"Interviews were held with 217 children of both sexes whose ages ranged from 6-0 to 10-2. Their answers to questions related to their perception of their parents were obtained. Both girls and boys stated that fathers were less friendly and more dominant, punitive, and threatening than mothers. There was, however, a consistent tendency for the older children to be more likely than the younger children to view the parent of the same sex as more dominant and punitive. It was suggested that differential handling of boys and girls might partially account for this latter finding." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subject performance as affected by experimenter expectancy, sex of experimenter, and verbal reinforcement.

Investigated the effect of E-expectancy, sex of E in relation to sex of S, and verbal reinforcement upon S's response rate in a simple motor-performance task, 160 undergraduates assigned to the 16 cells of a 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 factorial. Ss removed glass marbles from a cache and dropped them 1 at a time through holes drilled in a table top. Main effects of sex of S, verbal reinforcement, and E-expectancy were statistically significant. The expected interaction of sex of E, sex of S, and verbal reinforcement was not supported. The finding of E-expectancy as a significant factor adds to the generality of the phenomenon because of experimental conditions which removed the scoring of responses from E, and which substituted a simple motor-performance task for a judgmental one. (French summary) (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting goals as organizers of responses to parent–child disagreement.

Parenting goals are outcomes that parents hope to achieve during interactions with children. Three studies involving 138 men (78 fathers) and 158 women (110 mothers) examined the causes and consequences of parents' focusing on various goals during disagreements with young children. Women were more likely than men to focus on relationship-centered (RC) goals, public situations increased concern for short-term parent-centered (PC) goals, and empathy was predictive of long-term child-centered (CC) and RC goals. PC goals were associated with power assertion, CC goals with reasoning, and RC goals with warm, negotiating, and cooperative parenting behavior. Attributions of intentionality and dispositional causation were possible mediators of the link between power assertion and PC and CC goals. Instructions to focus on PC goals increased negative affective states and decreased sympathy for children, whereas instructions to focus on RC goals had the opposite effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental language and verbal responsiveness to children in crowded homes.

This article is a secondary data analysis of the University of Kansas Language Acquisition Project, which intensively studied, on a regular basis, parent and child language from age 6 months to 30 months. The association between residential density and parent–child speech was examined. Parents in crowded homes speak in less complex, sophisticated ways with their children compared with parents in uncrowded homes, and this association is mediated by parental responsiveness. Parents in more crowded homes are less verbally responsive to their children. This in turn accounts for their simpler, less sophisticated speech to their children. This mediational pathway is evident with statistical controls for socioeconomic status. This model may help explain prior findings showing a link between residential crowding and delayed cognitive development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Linking marital and child attributions to family processes and parent–child relationships.

The contribution of marital attributions to parenting and parent-child interaction was examined, along with the contribution of children's attributions for negative parental behavior to ineffective parent-child communication. Data from 170 children 10 to 12 years old (84 girls, 86 boys) were used to test a model of hypothesized links among conflict-promoting marital attributions, negative marital context, parenting practices, children's attributions for parent behavior, and ineffective parent-child communication. Husbands' and wives' marital attributions were related to the marital context, which was related to ineffective parent-child communication. Husbands' and wives' conflict-promoting marital attributions also were related to parenting practices, which were related to children's attributions for negative parental behavior. Children's attributions also accounted for unique variance in ineffective parent-child communication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power assertive discipline, maternal emotional involvement, and child adjustment.

Despite long-standing research, the relations between power assertive discipline and child adjustment continue to be debated. Disentangling disciplinary practices from the parent-child emotional climate may aid understanding of how such parenting practices impact child adjustment. This study explored longitudinal relations between maternal emotional involvement, power assertive discipline, and child adjustment in a sample of 35 mothers of infant, toddler, and preschool-age children. Results indicate that power assertive discipline may differentially impact child adjustment, depending on levels of maternal emotional involvement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers' and fathers' perceptions of child deviance: Roles of parent and child behaviors and parent adjustment.

The mothers (n?=?120) and fathers (n?=?85) of children with conduct problems (ages?=?3–8 years) completed two measures of child adjustment (Child Behavior Checklist, Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory), three personal adjustment measures (Beck Depression Inventory, Marital Adjustment Test, Parenting Stress Index), and a Life Experience Survey and were observed at home interacting with their children. In addition, teachers (n?=?107) completed the Behar Preschool Questionnaire. Fathers' perceptions of their children's behaviors were significantly correlated with teachers' ratings, but mothers' ratings were not. Correlations showed that mothers who were depressed or stressed due to marital problems perceived more child deviant behaviors and interacted with their children with more commands and criticisms. Fathers' perceptions and behaviors were relatively unaffected by personal adjustment measures. Differences in these perceptions and behaviors between mothers and fathers are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adjustment of adult–child instruction according to child's age and task.

32 mothers taught their 6- or 8-yr-old children 1 of 2 laboratory classification tasks resembling a home or school activity. It was expected that dyads would compensate for the perceived difficulty of the school task for the younger children by providing greater assistance to this group than to the other 3 groups. The instructional interaction was coded in terms of amount of directives, open-ended questions, and nonverbal instruction provided by the mother; involvement of the child; and reviewing for the learning test. Following the instruction, children were tested on learning of the organization of items. MANOVA showed that the younger children in the school task did receive more instruction than those in the 3 other groups. This modification of instruction was accompanied by slightly better performance on the learning task by the younger children in the school task than by children in the other 3 groups. Results illustrate the interactional nature of instruction and learning, by which assistance with cognitive tasks is tailored to the perceived needs of the children in the particular problem context. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral intervention to reduce child and parent distress during venipuncture.

This study investigated a behavioral intervention incorporating parent coaching, attentional distraction, and positive reinforcement to control child distress during invasive cancer treatment. Children (N?=?23) requiring physical restraint to complete venipuncture were alternately assigned to either a behavioral intervention or an attention control condition. Child distress behaviors were recorded, and self-reports of parent, child, and nurse distress were obtained. Parent and nurse also rated child distress. Results of planned comparisons indicate that observed child distress, parent-rated child distress, and parent ratings of his/her own distress were significantly reduced by behavioral intervention and were maintained across the course of three intervention trials. The use of physical restraint to manage child behavior was also significantly reduced. Child self-reported pain and nurse ratings of child distress were not significantly affected. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of age and sex on responsiveness to babies.

Interest in babies was assessed in 32 8–9 yr olds and 32 14–15 yr olds by 6-sec time sampling of waiting room behaviors in the presence of a live baby and by reactions to pictures of babies vs other objects. Age conferred mode differences in behavioral responsivity: Adolescents made more proximal bids, 8–9 yr olds more distal bids. Males and females differed in amount of behavioral and perceptual baby interest, with girls more responsive than boys. Sex differences were virtually absent among 8–9 yr olds but emerged during adolescence. Interpretations in terms of increased salience of sex-role stereotypes during adolescence are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental divorce, parent–child bonds, and adult attachment orientations among college students: A comparison of three racial/ethnic groups.

Despite evidence indicating that race/ethnicity and parental divorce may respectively affect perceptions of family and other intimate relationships, the conjoint influences of these sociodemographic variables on self-reports of both early (parent–child) and current (intimate adult) attachment relationships have not been investigated. In the present study, the authors examined (a) the contributions of parental marital status and race/ethnicity to scores on these measures and (b) the relative abilities of parental bonds to predict adult attachment orientations among students from different family backgrounds (i.e., intact and divorced) and from different racial/ethnic groups (i.e., White, Black, and Hispanic/Latino). Results indicated that race/ethnicity and parents' marital status had significant effects on the attachment measures, and that the extent to which parental bonds predicted adult attachment orientations varied among students with different family backgrounds and race/ethnicity. Implications of these findings to the conceptualization of college students' psychosocial development are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender, affiliation, assertion, and the interactive context of parent–child play.

Ninety-eight young U.S. children (mean age?=?48 months) with either European, Latin American, or multiple ethnic backgrounds were videotaped with their mothers and their fathers on separate occasions in their families' homes. Parent–child pairs played for 8 min each with a feminine-stereotyped toy set (foods and plates) and a masculine-stereotyped toy set (track and cars). Levels of affiliation (engaging vs. distancing) and assertion (direct vs. nondirect) were rated on 7-point scales every 5 s from the videotapes for both parent and child. Overall, the play activity accounted for a large proportion of the variance in parents' and children's mean affiliation and assertion ratings. Some hypothesized gender-related differences in behavior were also observed. In addition, exploratory analyses revealed some differences between the different ethnic groups. The results highlight the importance of role modeling and activity settings in the socialization and social construction of gender. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interaction of parent and child gender in physical child maltreatment.

Assessed cross-generational patterns of physical child maltreatment taking the gender of both parents and child into consideration, and the experience of shame regarding one's own physically abusive behaviors. 1536 parents (mean age 47 yrs) and their 983 children (mean age 18 yrs) were administered the Conflict Tactics Scale (M. A. Straus, 1989) along with other questionnaires to gather information on aggressive behavior, shame experienced in abusing their children and demographic data. The parents were categorized as physically abusive or nonabusive if both parent and child ratings of the parents' behavior were in agreement. Results show that parents received more physical child maltreatment from their own same gender parent than from opposite gender parents. Among the abusive parents, the more maltreatment they received as children by the same gender parent, the less shame they felt for using such punishment on their own children. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal punitiveness as affected by situational stress: An experimental analogue of child abuse.

To test hypothesized variables involved in punishment and child abuse, 2 techniques were used to increase child-dependent and child-independent situational demands placed on mothers in a controlled laboratory situation while they monitored their children's performances. 10 23–29 yr old mothers and their 4–8 yr old children participated in concurrent tasks. Whether these stressors were directly related to their children's behaviors or independent of them, heightened stress resulted in increases in punitiveness toward the children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental attitudes toward child rearing: Instruments, issues, and implications.

Describes historical use of surveys to assess parents' global child-rearing attitudes and reviews the structure and content of the 83 parent attitude questionnaires published from 1899 through 1986 designed to quantify variations in parental attitudes and, presumably, parental behavior. Inspection of the surveys' psychometric properties reveals marginally acceptable levels of reliability and questionable validity. One suspected source of problems with the instruments, the use of vague and ambiguous items, was confirmed in a study of mothers' reactions to one survey. In addition to instrument errors, conceptual problems associated with assumptions about the structure of parental attitudes and how attitudes relate to parental behavior are discussed. Alternative methods for assessing parental social cognitions and individual differences in parents are advocated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tensions in the parent and adult child relationship: Links to solidarity and ambivalence.

Tensions are normative in the parent and adult child relationship, but there is little research on the topics that cause the most tension or whether tensions are associated with overall relationship quality. In this study, adult sons and daughters, age 22 to 49, and their mothers and fathers (N = 158 families, 474 individuals) reported the intensity of different tension topics and relationship quality (solidarity and ambivalence) with one another. Tensions varied between and within families by generation, gender, and age of offspring. Compared to tensions regarding individual issues, tensions regarding the relationship were associated with lower affective solidarity and greater ambivalence. Findings are consistent with the developmental schism hypothesis, which indicates that parent–child tensions are common and are the result of discrepancies in developmental needs that vary by generation, gender, and age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of filial therapy on parent and child behaviors.

Notes that filial therapy is a unique form of parent training that incorporates training in play therapy skills, parent-child play sessions, and supervision experiences. The objective is to help parents become therapeutic agents in their children's lives. This article explores the extent to which experimental studies have verified the accomplishment of this objective, identifies specific research instruments that have been used in filial therapy research, and summarizes findings. Additional areas for research are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential susceptibility to discipline: The moderating effect of child temperament on the association between maternal discipline and early childhood externalizing problems.

This study investigated the interaction of child temperament and maternal discipline in the prediction of externalizing problems in early childhood. Interaction effects were evaluated in a sample of 227 one- to three-year-old children with relatively high externalizing problems scores on the Child Behavior Checklist/1 1/2-5. Child temperament was reported by the mothers, maternal discipline was observed in a laboratory session, and child outcome measures included both mother-reported externalizing problems and observed physical aggression. Results indicate that children with difficult temperaments are more susceptible to negative discipline (i.e., they showed more externalizing problems) as well as more susceptible to positive discipline (i.e., they showed fewer externalizing problems and less physical aggression), as compared with children with relatively easy temperaments. These findings provide empirical evidence for the differential susceptibility hypothesis and suggest directions for enhancing the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing early childhood externalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Levels of family assessment: I. Family, marital, and parent–child interaction.

Families are complicated systems to assess and quantify, requiring that decisions be made regarding where to focus research. The authors examined 3 levels of family interaction: marital, parent–child, and whole family. Instruments included the McMaster Structured Interview of Family Functioning, the Family Assessment Device, the Mealtime Interaction Coding System, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, and the Parent/Caregiver Involvement Scale. Results suggest that each measure, representing a unique combination of family level, informant, and setting, contained both independent variance and information redundant with other measures characterizing the family. The strengths of using a theoretical base, in this case the McMaster model of family functioning, and a multimeasure approach arc discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)