Children's comprehension of actions depicted in photographs.

Two experiments investigated comprehension of pictorial representations in 160 3–6 yr old children. In Exp I, Ss were asked to mimic the poses of children depicted in black and white photographs, to mimic the same poses depicted by the live model, and to describe the contents of the photographs. Exp II replicated the 1st experiment with line drawings and a doll. Performance was significantly better with the live model than with the photographs, drawings, or doll. A comparison among the 3 representational forms indicated that photographs were the most difficult to mimic and describe and that the doll was the least difficult to describe. Results are discussed with respect to the developing ability to interpret symbolic representations and the effects of media-specific characteristics. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Face recognition accuracy as a function of mode of representation.

The relative effectiveness of line drawings and photographs as ways of representing information in face reconstruction systems was compared in 2 experiments. In Exp I, 3 independent groups of college students (27 in each group) were required to identify well-known faces shown either as photographs, detailed line drawings, or outline drawings. Photographs were significantly more effective as stimuli than line drawings, which in turn were superior to outlines. In Exp II, 80 Ss aged 16–60 yrs recruited from the public participated in a recognition task. Photographs and detailed line drawings of previously unknown faces served as stimuli. Ss recognized photographs significantly more accurately than line drawings, even when the pose of the target was changed between the exposure and test series. Results are discussed in terms of the development of computer-based face reconstruction systems and theories of face recognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for pictures: Does an age-related decline exist?

Examined the effects of varying detail on memory. In Exp I, pictorial embellishment was varied by presenting 27 Ss aged 60+ yrs and 30 undergraduates with normal photographs, high-contrast photographs, or line drawings, and testing their memory immediately and 4 wks later. All of the Ss did best with the most elaborate pictures (normal photographs), and old Ss remembered as well as young at the immediate but not at the delayed interval. In Exp II, with 21 old Ss and 21 18–36 yr olds, detail was varied by adding background to line drawings of a central object. Ss of both ages profited from enhanced background detail, and there were no differences in memory as a function of age. Exp III replicated Exp II, except that Ss (10 elderly and 17 college students) studied the pictures under divided attention conditions. Again, Ss of both ages recognized elaborate pictures best, and no significant age differences emerged. Results suggest that old and young adults profit from visual embellishment and that memory for meaningful pictures remains relatively intact with age. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

View specificity, array specificity, and egocentrism in young children's drawings.

Examined the concept of egocentrism in an experiment in which 80 children (aged 6 yrs 1 mo to 7 yrs 2 mo) were asked to draw 2 pictures of an array of 2 objects, one characterizing their own view and the other characterizing the view of another child seated in a different position. Ss were able to represent their partner's view when the latter presented few problems in graphic complexity or mental rotation. Ss who were asked to draw their own view after drawing their partner's produced more view specific drawings than Ss asked to draw their own view first. It is concluded that the production of array-specific representations of spatial relations in young children's drawings should not be seen as a manifestation of egocentrism. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of children's knowledge about the appearance–reality distinction.

Discusses recent research on the acquisition of knowledge about the appearance–reality distinction. Findings suggest that many 3-yr-olds seem to possess little or no understanding of the distinction and are unresponsive to training. At this age level, skill in solving simple appearance–reality tasks is highly correlated with skill in solving simple visual perspective-taking tasks. Findings are consistent with the hypothesis that what helps children finally master the distinction is an increased cognizance of the fact that people are sentient beings who have mental representations of objects and events. It is suggested that this realization allows children to understand that the same stimulus can be mentally represented in 2 different, seemingly contradictory ways: (a) in the appearance–reality case, how it appears to the self vs how it really is; and (b) in the perspective-taking case, how it presently appears to self vs other. It is noted that, while children of 6–7 yrs manage simple appearance–reality tasks with ease, they have great difficulty reflecting on and talking about such appearance–reality notions as "looks like," "really and truly," and especially, "looks different from the way it really and truly is." Children of 11–22 yrs, and to an even greater degree college students, however, give evidence of possessing a substantial body of rich, readily available, and explicit knowledge in this area. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison, multiple reference groups, and the self-concepts of academically handicapped children before and after mainstreaming.

Predictions adduced from social comparison theory and group reference theory were tested in 2 experiments that assessed the impact of half-day integration into the educational mainstream on the self-concepts of academically handicapped children. In Exp I (50 Ss, 6 yrs 2 mo to 10 yrs 10 mo old), mainstreamed Ss exhibited significantly augmented self-concepts, a result attributed to the availability of multiple comparative reference groups. In Exp II (20 Ss, 8 yrs 3 mo to 11 yrs), a manipulation designed to restrict self-concept-relevant social comparisons to Ss in the academic mainstream produced decreased self-regard, while unrestricted utilization of multiple comparative reference groups produced increased self-regard. Results are interpreted as supportive of the theoretical viability of social comparison theory and group reference theory in educational settings. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The feeling of knowing experience in educable retarded children.

Required 50 educable retarded children to predict their recognition accuracy when recall failed. Ss were divided into 3 ability levels: (a) old Ss (mean CA 13.25 yrs, mean MA 10.5 yrs), (b) medium Ss (mean CA 11.25 yrs, mean MA 8.75 yrs), and (c) young Ss (mean CA 9 yrs 5 mo, mean MA 6 yrs 9 mo). Results indicate that old and medium Ss could reliably predict their recognition accuracy, suggesting sensitivity to their own feeling of knowing experience, but that the young Ss showed no evidence of this sensitivity. Even though the young Ss had difficulty predicting their recognition accuracy in advance they were able to estimate the success or failure of their responses after they had occurred. Results are discussed in terms of the complexity of the metamemory judgment required, and the advisability of evaluating metamemorial knowledge across several situations is emphasized. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of elementary deductive reasoning in young children.

This study examined the claim (J. Hawkins et al; see record 1984-25517-001) that young children can reason deductively with content for which "practical knowledge is irrelevant." Ss 6, 8, and 11 years of age were given a set of standard logical syllogisms and a matching set of illogical ones. Six-year-olds gave similar responses to and used similar types of justifications for both logical and illogical forms, indicating that correct performance on the former might be accounted for by a low-level matching strategy, not necessarily by deductive reasoning. A clear developmental pattern emerged, showing that the ability of children to differentiate responses to the two forms improves over this age period. However, the number of children able to explicitly describe illogicality remained small, even among 11-year-olds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal control of behavior: The effects of shouting.

Tested the implication of A. R. Luria's (1961, 1969) theory that children under 5 yrs of age would have more difficulty obeying instructions to inhibit a response the greater the intensity (loudness) of the instruction; this should not be true for children over 5 yrs of age. In the present study, 18 younger children (aged 3 yrs 6 mo to 4 yrs 9 mo) and 18 older children (aged 4 yrs 10 mo to 6 yrs 4 mo) played a game in which they were to follow instructions and either perform or refrain from performing simple acts. Instructions were loud, medium, or soft in intensity. Results for younger Ss were clear and significant in supporting Luria's theory. For older Ss, however, results do not neatly fit Luria's theory: Increased intensity facilitated compliance with instructions to inhibit a response. Data support the contention that an important aspect of language development is the decontextualization of meaning. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intermediate-size transposition and children's operational level.

Three experiments with a total of 170 children aged 4 yrs 8 mo–7 yrs 5 mo examined the relationship between intermediate-size transposition and operational level. In each experiment, concrete and preoperational Ss were identified by Piagetian tasks. In Exp I, half of the Ss received single-problem training and the other half multiple-problem training, followed by a far test of transposition. Exp II was similar to the multiple-training condition, but all Ss could verbalize and understand the concept "middle size." Exp III differed from Exp II in providing a test of near transposition after single-problem training. It was found that logical abilities as well as perceptual factors are involved in transposition performance. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of day care on the development of cognitive abilities in 8-year-olds: A longitudinal study.

In G?teborg, Sweden, 146 children (72 girls) were enrolled in a longitudinal study when they averaged 16 mo of age. None of the children had experienced regular out-of-home care yet, but within 3 mo, 54 entered center care and 33 entered family day care. Quality of home and out-of-home care environments, child temperament, and the development of verbal abilities were assessed regularly during preschool years. When they were 8 yrs old (2nd grade), cognitive ability tests were administered to the 123 children (65 girls) still in the study. Tested ability was related to the number of months children had spent in center-based day care before 3.5 yrs of age. Child care quality predicted cognitive abilities among children who had spent at least 36 mo in out-of-home care during their preschool years. Both tested and rated cognitive abilities in 2nd grade were related to earlier measures of verbal ability and to paternal involvement during preschool years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's concepts of volume and flotation.

Conducted a pilot study in which children (aged 7–9 yrs and 11–13 yrs) were asked to judge which 1 out of 3 wooden blocks would float (or sink), given weight and volume information for each block relative to a block that was known to float (or sink). Analysis of explanations indicated that judgments may have been based on the size–weight illusion. An experiment exploring the basis of flotation judgments was conducted with 14 children aged 7 yrs 1 mo to 9 yrs 6 mo and 16 children aged 11 yrs 4 mo to 14 yrs 11 mo that involved a test for judgment of volume based on information integration theory. Results show that Ss aged 7–24 yrs accurately judged volume by integrating 3 dimensions—width, depth, and height—according to the multiplicative rule. A rule assessment of their flotation judgments showed no age differences in initial rule, with weight rules being most popular. However, after feedback there were marked age effects; the 7–9 yr olds abandoned their initial rule without finding an alternative, and the 11–24 yr olds were generally able to find the correct flotation rule. It is concluded that children aged 7–24 yrs can judge volume but 7–9 yr olds have difficulty with the concept of flotation, possibly because it requires mental comparison of 2 ratios, a task known to be difficult for 7–9 yr olds. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's memory for drawings based on a false belief.

In 3 studies, preschool children drew or saw another person draw what they wrongly thought were the contents of a box, saw the true contents, and then were asked what had been drawn and what they (or the other person) had thought was in the box. Children were more accurate at recalling drawings than beliefs. Belief judgments were no more accurate than in a control task with no drawing. Both the drawings and the initial belief represented falsely the contents of the box, yet children had much more difficulty with beliefs than with drawings and did not use their more accurate recall of drawings to help recall beliefs. These results are contrary both to the view that children have a general representational deficit and to the view that having a physical counterpart to belief helps children overcome a reality bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of marital conflict predict children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors.

Reports the results of a longitudinal study on how marital interaction affects children. Observational assessment of marital interaction during conflict resolution obtained when children were 5 yrs old predicted teachers' ratings of internalizing and externalizing behaviors when the children were 8 yrs old. Two distinct and uncorrelated marital interaction patterns were related to specific forms of child outcomes. The Mutually Hostile pattern, which correlated with later marital dissolution, also predicted externalizing behavior patterns in children 3 yrs later. The Husband Angry and Withdrawn pattern predicted child internalizing behaviors. Marital satisfaction and child temperament did not relate to child outcomes, nor did they interact with marital patterns to produce deficits in child adjustment. Findings suggest that the specific behaviors couples use when resolving marital disputes may contribute differentially to the presence of externalizing and internalizing behavior patterns in children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The place of depression in dysfunctional learning.

Explored the possible relationship between aspects of attention deficit disorder (ADD) and depression in a review of the cases of 29 children (aged 6 yrs 1 mo to 15 yrs 4 mo) with diagnoses of ADD (with or without hyperactivity) and of 43 children (aged 7 yrs 3 mo to 15 yrs 7 mo) with classifications of one of the major depressions. The cases were referrals from schools in predominantly African-American and Latino communities. Provocative behavior, usually fighting, was ubiquitous for both diagnostic groups. Limited attention and concentration and impaired sleep patterns were common to both groups. Seriously impaired academic adjustment was noted in some 80% of the depression referrals. Results suggest that psychiatric examination of critical behaviors can lead to misdiagnoses because of the ways that depression is manifested in children and the relatively poor guidelines for making the diagnosis of childhood depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's evaluations of fathers' socialization behavior.

30 boys and 30 girls in each of 4 age groups (5 yrs 3 mo to 7 yrs 6 mo, 8 yrs 5 mo to 10 yrs 3 mo, 11 yrs 4 mo to 13 yrs 5 mo, and 15 yrs 8 mo to 18 yrs 9 mo) were asked to evaluate fathers' discipline techniques over a range of situations in which a culprit was described as having transgressed. The techniques consisted of induction, physical punishment, love withdrawal, and permissiveness. Evaluations were determined more by the nature of the child making the evaluation than by the type of situation. Whereas the youngest age group indicated no clear pattern of preferences for one technique over another, the 3 older age groups generally evaluated both induction and physical punishment more favorably than the other 2 techniques. In no age group was induction evaluated more highly than physical punishment for all situations. Boys generally evaluated fathers more favorably than did girls, particularly in their use of physical punishment in situations of simple disobedience and physical harm to self. For the youngest boys, self-reports of empathy were correlated with positive ratings of fathers' induction on the combined situations. The differential socialization behavior of fathers is discussed in terms of bidirectional processes. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming between spoken words in adults and children.

Used an auditory lexical decision paradigm to determine occurrence of semantic priming between spoken words and to investigate the organization of the mental lexicon in preliterate children. 30 undergraduates and 24 1st-grade children (aged 6 yrs 2 mo to 7 yrs) were tested on a lexical decision task in which Ss had to decide whether pairs of spoken items were words. In both groups, significant facilitation was found for semantically related words compared with unrelated ones. Results indicate that semantic priming occurred in the auditory modality. The fact that children benefited at least as much from and often more than adults from an appropriate semantic context suggests that the lexicon of the child is organized in the same way as the adult's as early as 6 to 7 yrs of age. (French abstract) (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Grammatical awareness in the spoken and written language of language-disabled children.

Two experiments examined judgment, revision, and error-identification deficits in relation to expressive language skills and morphemic errors in writing. 12 language-disabled (LND) children (aged 8 yrs 2 mo to 12 yrs 4 mo) and 11 controls (aged 6 yrs 3 mo to 6 yrs 11 mo) matched for language ability participated in Exp 1. 11 LND children (aged 9 yrs 1 mo to 12 yrs 2 mo), 11 age-matched children with no language disability, and 11 children (aged 6 yrs 2 mo to 8 yrs 0 mo) matched to LND Ss for language ability participated in Exp 2. LND Ss who did not lack expressive use of target morphemes also did not differ from language-matched Ss in their ability to (1) judge the grammaticality of spoken sentences, (2) revise them, and (3) identify errors. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transitive inference in rats (Rattus norvegicus).

Although Piagetian theory proposes that the ability to make transitive inferences is confined to humans above age 7 yrs, recent evidence has suggested that this logical ability may be more broad based. In nonverbal tests, transitive inference has been demonstrated in preschool children and 2 species of nonhuman primates. In these experiments, evidence of transitive inference in rats is demonstrated. An ordered series of 5 olfactory stimuli (A??E and A?>?F). The possibility that logical transitivity may reflect a form of spatial paralogic rather than formal deductions from a syllogistic–verbal system is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The early development of sex-differentiated patterns of social influence.

Examined the verbal social influence styles of 36 boys and girls aged 41–52 mo and 38 boys and girls aged 54–66 mo. Ss were observed in the classroom for 36 min each, over several months. Results indicate that boys emitted a greater number of influence attempts than girls and that this was almost entirely due to their greater use of direct forms of requests. This sex-differentiation in the use of direct requests became more pronounced with age. In contrast, girls increased their use of indirect forms of influence between the ages of 3 and 5 yrs. Success of peer influence attempts towards boys decreased with age from 3 to 5 yrs, especially attempts of the indirect type, while success of attempts toward girls remained relatively stable with age. Girls' direct requests were more successful toward same-sex than opposite-sex peers. These patterns are discussed in terms of the role they might play in perpetuating the rigidity with which children establish same-sex groups during the preschool period. (French abstract) (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)