Tensile flow and fracture behavior of DO3 Fe-25 at. pct Al and Fe-31 at. pct al alloys

The tensile properties, fracture modes, and deformation mechanisms of two DO₃ alloys, Fe-25 and Fe-31 at. pct Al, have been investigated as a function of temperature up to 600°C. The first alloy was produced by powder metallurgy and hot-extrusion, the second by casting and hot-extrusion. At room temperature extensive plastic deformation occurs in these intermetallics, exhibiting an elongation to fracture of 8 pct and 5.6 pct, respectively. In the Fe-25Al alloy the deformation process consisted of motion and extensive cross-slip of ordinary dislocations and associated formation of antiphase-boundary (APB) bands, while in the Fe-31 Al alloy, plasticity occurred by the motion of superlattice dislocations which eventually dissociated to form APB bands. At room temperature both alloys exhibited transgranular cleavage fracture modes. The variation of tensile properties and fracture modes with temperature is presented. H. A. LIPSITT, formerly with the Materials Laboratory of the Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH 45433-6533     

Fatigue deformation of TiAl base alloys

The fatigue behavior of Ti-36.3 wt pct Al and Ti-36.2 wt pct Al-4.65 wt pct Nb alloys was studied in the temperature range room temperature to 900°C. The microstructures of the alloys tested consisted predominantly of γ phase (TiAl) with a small volume fraction of γ phase (Ti₃Al) distributed in lamellar form. The alloys were tested to failure in alternate tension-compression fatigue at several constant load amplitudes with zero mean stress. Fracture modes and substructural changes resulting from fatigue deformation were studied by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron miscroscopy respectively. The ratio of fatigue strength (at 10⁶ cycles) to ultimate tensile strength was found to be in the range 0.5 to 0.8 over the range of temperatures tested. The predominant mode of fracture changed from cleavage type at room temperature to intergranular type at temperatures above 600°C. The fatigue microstructure at low temperatures consisted of a high density of a/3 [111] faults and dislocation debris of predominantly a/2 [110] and a/2 [110] Burger's vectors with no preferential alignment of dislocations. At high temperatures, a dislocation braid structure consisting of all 〈110〉 slip vectors was observed. The changes in fracture behavior with temperature correlated well with changes in dislocation substructure developed during fatigue deformation. S. M. L. SASTRY was formerly NRC Research Associate in the Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH     

Prevention of the intergranular fracture by addition of silicon and aluminum to a high-purity Fe-0.2 Pct P alloy with a trace of boron

The effect of addition of 0.25 pct silicon and aluminum on the intergranular fracture and the grain-boundary segregation of solutes in a high-purity Fe-0.2 pct P alloy with a trace of boron has been investigated by impact test, tensile test at low temperatures, optical and scanning electron microscopy, and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). The addition of 0.25 pct silicon and aluminum remarkably reduces the susceptibility of an Fe-0.2 pct P alloy to the intergranular fracture and decreases the ductile-brittle transition temperature (DBTT). The addition of silicon and aluminum causes considerable segregation of boron to grain boundaries and, simulta-neously, remarkably decreases the segregation of phosphorus in the Fe-0.2 pct P alloy. The cause for these effects is discussed. Formerly Professor, Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University     

Environmentally assisted cracking of two-phase Fe-Mn-Al alloys in NaCl solution

Three two-phase Fe-Mn-Al alloys with nominal compositions, Fe-24Mn-9Al, Fe-27Mn-9Al-3Cr,. and Fe-27Mn-9Al-6Cr, were prepared in the solution-treated and cold-rolled conditions. The fractions of ferrite in the solution-treated condition were controlled at 46 to 60 pct, mainly by adjusting the carbon content and the relative amounts of Mn and Al. The ferrite fractions were reduced to 30 to 37 pct after 75 pct deformation by cold-rolling. Specimens were tensile tested at open circuit in aerated 3.5 pct NaCl solution at slow strain rates ranging from 4 × 10^-7 to 4 × 10^-5 s^-1 at room temperature. All of the alloys were quite susceptible to environmentally assisted cracking (EAC). The deformed specimens showed less susceptibility, presumably because the plasticity was already too limited. The EAC appeared to occur at or after the onset of plastic deformation. In this alloy system, the ferritic phase was less resistant to EAC than the austenitic phase, in contrast to the Fe-Cr-Ni stainless steels. The crack propagated preferentially through the ferrite grains or along the ferrite/austenite grain boundaries. The addition of up to 6 pct Cr did not improve the EAC resistance. Formerly Graduate Student, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University     

Elevated temperature tensile behavior of Ti-25AI-10Nb-3V-1Mo

The effects of microstructure and temperature on tensile and fracture behavior were explored for the titanium aluminide alloy Ti-25Al-10Nb-3V-lMo (atomic percent). Three microstructures were selected for study in an attempt to determine the role of the individual microstructural constituents in this α₂ + B2 alloy. Tensile testing of both round and flat specimens in vacuum indicated a change in deformation behavior from 25 °C to 450 °C. Observations suggested that this change in deformation behavior occurred within the α₂ phase. Failure initiation at 450 °C and above was by a ductile process and was associated with the B2 phase. Above 600 °C and at high strains, plastic deformation occurred predominantly in the B2 phase. Strain localization was observed above 600 °C and found to be due to the lower work-hardening rate of the B2 phase. Strain localization at slip band intersections with prior β grain boundaries resulted in rapid strain accumulation in the B2 phase. Alignment of secondary α₂ laths with the tensile axis at high deformation levels appeared to inhibit shear band localization between voids due to a lack of participation of the α₂ phase in deformation. Formerly Materials Scientist, Materials Directorate, Wright Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, OH 45433, is Program Manager, Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Boiling AFB, Washington, DC 20332. Formerly Professor, Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, is Scientist, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720.     

Criteria for Fracture Initiation at Hydrides in Zirconium-2.5 Pct Niobium Alloy

In many ductile commercial alloys, fracture is initiated at second phase particles. In this work, the initiation process in Zr-2.5 pct Nb pressure tube alloy is examined. In particular, the conditions for fracture of a hydride platelet in a zirconium matrix are sought, by testing tensile specimens containing hydrides oriented with the normals of the platelet parallel to the tensile axis. Acoustic emission is monitored to signal the fracture event. It is concluded that some plastic deformation must precede hydride fracture and that fracture is encouraged by a triaxial stress state. The fracture mechanism appears to be one of slip-induced crack nucleation in the hydrides with the critical event being the growth of this crack to a critical size. Formerly on leave with the Materials Research Laboratory, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912     

Fatigue behavior and failure mechanisms of modified 7075 aluminum alloys

The effects of purity level and dispersoid type on the fatigue behavior of 7000 series alloys were investigated. Ten different compositions based on the 7075 alloy were produced with five levels of Fe + Si and either Cr or Zr dispersoids. Notched axial fatigue specimens were tested at room temperature and the fatigue life did not correlate with either purity level or dispersoid type. Specimens failed by three macroscopic modes designated as: slant, vee, or flat fracture. Sectioning analysis showed that the slant, vee, and flat fractures resulted from single, double and multiple initiation, respectively. Both initiation and propagation in all three modes of failures were dominated by slip related fracture on the {111} planes inclined at 35 deg to the tensile axis of the textured material. The same failure mechanisms were observed in smooth fatigue specimens. formerly with the Metals and Ceramics Division, Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH 45433     

Microstructure and mechanical properties relationships in the Ti-11 alloy at room and elevated temperatures

To establish correlations between microstructure and mechanical properties for the Ti-ll alloy, twelve different combinations of hot die forging and heat treatment, in the a + 8 and Β phase regions, were investigated. The resulting heat treated forgings were classified into four distinct categories based on their microstructural appearance. The room temperature tensile, post-creep tensile, fracture toughness and fatigue crack propagation properties were measured along with creep and low cycle fatigue at 566‡C. The creep, tensile, fatigue crack propagation and fracture toughness properties, grouped in a manner similar to the microstructural categories. The fracture appearance and behavior of the cracks during propagation in fatigue and in fracture toughness tests were examined, and correlations with the microstructure discussed. In the case of the fully transformed acicular microstructure, it was found that the size and the orientation of colonies of similarly aligned α needles are dominant factors in the crack behavior. Formerly a National Research Council Associate, Air Force Materials Laboratory Formerly with AFML     

Ordering transformations and mechanical properties of Ti3Ai and Ti3Al-Nb alloys

Phase transformations and the kinetics of domain growth were studied in near stoichiometric Ti₃Al and in a similar alloy containing about 5 at. pct Nb (Cb). The alloys were quenched from the β and from the α+ β fields and were subsequently annealed in the α₂ field to study the ordering transformation. The critical temperature (T _c) for ordering was found to be between 1125 and 1150° for both alloys. When quenched from aboveT _c the microstructure of the stoichiometric compound contained massive martensite with small antiphase domains of average size 8 × 10^— μm. On annealing the quenched structures in the range 700 to 1000°, domain coalescence occurred, the domains growing approximately as the square root of the annealing time. The activation energy for the domain growth process was found to be 64.6 ± 6 Kcal/mole (2.68 ± 0.25 × 10⁵ J/mole). On quenching the alloy containing Nb the β transforms to a fine acicular martensite. On annealing, antiphase domain coalescence within the martensite plates and the simultaneous recrystallization of the martensite resulted in a fine subgrain structure even after annealing at 900° for up to 3 h. The mechanical properties and the fracture modes of the two alloys tested at 700° were correlated with the observed microstructural changes. The effects of Nb in this alloy are to slow the domain growth kinetics, to reduce the planarity of slip, and to increase nonbasal slip activity. Formerly NRC Research Associate in the Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH     

Mechanical properties of nitrogen-ferrite

Homogeneous formation of nitrogen-atom clusters (nitrogen GP zones) on{001} matrix planes during aging of an Fe-0.08 wt pct N alloy at 23 °C produces exceptional increases in the room temperature strength of the quenched solid solution. Overaging the zones at 100 °C to form the intermediate precipitateα″-Fe₁₆N₂ results in a decrease in strength but an increase in ductility of the material. Electron metallography on quenched, aged, and deformed structures suggests that dislocations shear the nitrogen-atom clusters during deformation. Formerly with the Wolfson Research Group for High-Strength Materials, Crystallography Laboratory, The University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom     

Plasma Nitriding Behavior of Fe-C-M (M = Al, Cr, Mn, Si) Ternary Martensitic Steels

Change in surface hardness and nitrides precipitated in Fe-0.6C binary and Fe-0.6 mass pct C-1 mass pct M (M = Al, Cr, Mn, Si) ternary martensitic alloys during plasma nitriding were investigated. Surface hardness was hardly increased in the Fe-0.6C binary alloy and slightly increased in Fe-0.6C-1Mn and Fe-0.6C-1Si alloys. On the other hand, it was largely increased in Fe-0.6C-1Al and Fe-0.6C-1Cr alloys. In all the Fe-0.6C-1M alloys except for the Si-added alloy, fine platelet alloy nitrides precipitated inside martensite laths. In the Fe-0.6C-1Si alloy, Si-enriched film was observed mainly at a grain boundary and an interface between cementite and matrix. Crystal structure of nitrides observed in the martensitic alloys was similar to those in Fe-M binary ferritic alloys reported previously. However, there was a difference in hardening behavior between ferrite and martensite due to a high density of dislocations acting as a nucleation site of the nitrides and partitioning of an alloying element between martensite and cementite changing the driving force of precipitation of the nitrides.     

The effect of microstructure on the mode of monotonie fracture,fatigue crack initiation,and stage i crack growth in an Fe-21 Pct Cr-11 Pct Ni heat resisting steel

This paper describes a study carried out at room temperature on an Fe-21 pct Cr-11 pct Ni heat resisting alloy under tensile and fatigue deformation. Specific microstructures were developed by heat treating the as-received alloy at different temperatures and times. The surface condition of all specimens displayed surface grain boundary oxidation to a maximum depth of 0.16 mm. In addition, the microstructure of specimens in one batch (B) contained intergranular chromium carbides. The major conclusions drawn from this study are that different microstructures respond differently to monotonie and cyclic modes of deformation. In particular, the embrittling effect of intergranular chromium carbides observed during the monotonie mode of deformation was different from that found when deformation was cyclic. During cyclic deformation these chromium carbides assisted in reducing the damaging effects of the surface grain boundary oxidation. Also during cyclic deformation, the overall fatigue life was found to depend on the mode of both fatigue crack initiation and Stage I crack growth. Fatigue life was reduced when crack initiation and Stage I crack growth were intergranular while it was enhanced when crack initiation occurred at slip bands and subsequent Stage I crack growth was transgranular. It was observed that surface grain boundary oxidation is a most deleterious micro-structural feature especially under fatigue loading but, if this feature is unavoidable then the presence of intergranular chromium carbides is considered to be highly beneficial in increasing the overall fatigue resistance of the material. Formerly a Postgraduate Student, School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales 2033.     

Nonequilibrium phases in rapidly quenched Fe-Al-C ternary alloys

Nonequilibrium phases of austenite(Y), ordered austenite (γ′) and hcp epsilon (ε) have been found in Fe-Al-C ternary alloys quenched rapidly from the melt. The formation ranges of these single phases are 2 to 6 pct Al and 1.8 to 2.1 pct C for the 7 phase, 6 to 12 pct Al and 1.7 to 2.1 pct C for the γ′ phase and 2 to 5 pct Al and above 4 pct C for the e phase. The lattice parameter varies from 0.361 to 0.365 nm for the γ phase and from 0.361 to 0.367 nm for the γ′ phase with increasing carbon and aluminum contents and is abouta = 0.264 nm andc = 0.434 nm for the e phase. Among these non-equilibrium phases, the austenite is so ductile that no crack is observed even after closely contacted bending test. The austenite phase has fine subgrains of 0.1 to 0.4 μm diam and the Vickers hardness, yield strength and tensile fracture strength are about 360 DPN, 940 MPa and 995 MPa, respectively, for Fe-4.0 pct Al-2.0 pct C alloy. Thus, due to relatively high hardness and strength combined with good ductility, the nonequilibrium austenite found in Fe-Al-C system is attractive as high-strength materials whose useful dimensions may be limited by critical rapid cooling rates. Formerly Graduate Student of Tohoku University, Formerly Graduate Student of Tohoku University     

Effect of carbon addition on the strength and creep resistance of FeAl alloys

We investigated the effect of carbon content (0.05, 0.12, and 0.2 wt pct C) and heat-treatment temperature (1100°C and 1300°C for 2 hours and air cooled) on the tensile and the creep properties of Fe-24 wt pct Al alloy. The increase of carbon content increased the yield strength without affecting the tensile ductility of the alloys. Carbon content appears to be beneficial in suppressing the hydrogen embrittlement at the grain boundary, because the fracture mode changes from predominantly intergranular failure in a low carbon (0.05 wt pct C) alloy to a predominantly transgranular cleavage failure in a high carbon (0.2 wt pct C) alloy. With the increase of carbon content, the anomalous yield strength peak shifted to a higher temperature possibly due to the interaction between carbon and vacanies. Significant improvements were noted in the tensile and the creep properties of medium (0.12 wt pct C) and high carbon (0.2 wt pct C) alloys after heat treating at 1300°C. The improvements in the tensile and the creep properties were attributed to the synergetic effect of retained vacancies and fine carbide precipitates present in the alloys after 1300°C heat treatment. However, the improved strength and creep properties associated with 1300 °C heat treatment were lost when the heat-treated alloys were further subjected to a vacancy removal annealing. Our results suggest that the retained vacancies present in the FeAl alloys after high-temperature heat treatment and air cooling are effective in improving the creep resistance at 700°C, and yield strength up to 800°C. The creep resistance of the present high carbon FeAl alloy is comparable to or better than several grades commercial heat-resistant Fe-based and Ni-based alloys. The work was carried out when the authors were with Chrysalis Technologies Inc., Richmond, VA. This article is based on a presentation made in the symposium entitled “Fundamentals of Structural Intermetallics,” presented at the 2002 TMS Annual Meeting, February 21–27, 2002, in Seattle, Washington, under the auspices of the ASM and TMS Joint Committee on Mechanical Behavior of Materials.     

An investigation of the generality of incomplete transformation to bainite in Fe-C-X alloys

The overall kinetics of the isothermal transformation of austenite to bainite and to pearlite in high-purity Fe-C-3 at. pct X alloys (X = Mn, Si, Ni, or Cu) containing 0.1 wt pct C and 0.4 wt pct C were investigated with quantitative metallography and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to ascertain the presence or absence of the incomplete reaction phenomenon. The incomplete transformation of austenite to bainite was not observed in the Fe-C-Si, Fe-C-Ni, Fe-C-Cu, or Fe-0.4C-Mn alloys. It was found, however, in the Fe-0.1C-Mn alloy. Transmission electron microscopy results indicate that sympathetic nucleation of ferrite without carbide precipitation is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the development of the incomplete reaction phenomenon. Transformation resumes following stasis in the low-carbon Fe-C-Mn alloy with the formation of a nodular bainite. The results support the view that the incomplete transformation of austenite to bainite is a characteristic of specific alloying elements and is not an inherent trait of the bainite reaction. Formerly Graduate Student, Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science, Carnegie Mellon University. Formerly Visiting Professor, Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science, Carnegie Mellon University. Formerly Undergraduate Student, Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science, Carnegie Mellon University. This paper is based on a presentation made in the symposium “International Conference on Bainite” presented at the 1988 World Materials Congress in Chicago, IL, on September 26 and 27, 1988, under the auspices of the ASM INTERNATIONAL Phase Transformations Committee and the TMS Ferrous Metallurgy Committee.     

Microstructure-property relationships of two AI-3Li-2Cu-0.2Zr-XCd alloys

The microstructure and tensile properties of two A1-3 wt pct Li-2 wt pct Cu-0.2 wt pct Zr alloys, one Cd-free and one containing 0.2 wt pct Cd, have been investigated. The Cd-free alloy remained unrecrystallized for all solutionizing treatments studied, whereas a special treatment had to be developed to prevent recrystallization during solutionizing of the 0.2 wt pct Cd alloy. In combination with cadmium, zirconium either enters into, or nucleates on, the course Al₇Cu₂Fe and T₂ phases during high temperature annealing. This reduces the volume fraction of small coherent Al₃Zr particles in the matrix which normally inhibits recrystallization. Consequently, a low temperature anneal to precipitate Al₃Zr is necessary prior to high temperature solutionizing in order to prevent recrystallization in the Cd-containing alloy. Unlike its effect in lower lithium, higher copper content aluminum alloys, cadmium does not significantly affect the nucleation of the strengthening precipitates. If anything, cadmium has a detrimental effect on the age hardening response of this alloy, since it increases the formation of coarse Al-Cu-Li equilibrium phases at grain and subgrain boundaries and thus removes some of the copper and lithium from participating in the formation of the strengthening precipitates T₁ and δ′. Subgrain boundary fracture occurred during tensile tests of both alloys in the unrecrystallized condition; however, transgranular fracture occurred in tests of the partially recrystallized 0.2 wt pct Cd alloy. Both types of fractures are believed due to a form of strain localization associated with precipitate free zones and shearable precipitates. Formerly with the Fracture and Fatigue Research Laboratory, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA     

Effects of high temperature fatigue on microstructure and mechanical properties of a nickel-base precipitation hardened alloy

Effects of high temperature strain controlled push-pull fatigue on the microstructure and mechanical properties of a nickel-base precipitation hardened alloy were studied. The fatigue deformation alone at 700 °C did not impair the mechanical properties of this alloy; however, a hold period ranging from one minute to one hour at tension-peak decreased the tensile ductility and the fracture toughness significantly. This was mainly attributed to grain boundary cavitation. Continuous fatigue resulted in dislocation bands, whereas hold-time fatigue caused a coherency loss iny’ precipitates. Implications of these microstructural changes for the residual mechanical properties are discussed. Formerly with the Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973. Formerly with the Brookhaven National Laboratory.     

Study of grain boundary fracture surfaces in doped tungsten-rhenium alloys

The combination of Auger electron spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy has identified the source of the unique interlocked elongated grains responsible for the high temperature sag resistance in doped tungsten and tungsten-rhenium alloys as due to bubbles which are formed by the volatilization of potassium during sintering. By pinning grain boundaries these bubbles raise the recrystallization temperature (from 1300†C to 2100†C) and their distribution within the material controls the recrystallized grain morphology. There is a thin layer of potassium remaining on the bubble surfaces. The size and distribution of the bubbles is related to the amount of material deformation during processing. Increasing rhenium content does not affect the concentration or distribution of residual potassium. It has no noticeable effect on bubble size, distribution or density. The presence of a thermal gradient during annealing does affect bubble density and recrystallization temperature. Formerly with the Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio Formerly with the Aerospace Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio     

Improved fatigue resistance of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu (7075) alloys through thermomechanical processing

To decrease the accumulation of damage during long-life low-stress cyclic loading, microstructures must accommodate inelastic deformation by homogeneous or “dispersed” slip rather than by localized slip concentrations. In age-hardening aluminum alloys this requirement can be met by introducing a dense and uniform dislocation forest through suitable thermo-mechanical treatments. Such a treatment was developed for Al-Zn-Mg-Cu (7075) alloys, involving a process cycle of solution annealing, partial aging, mechanical working and final aging. The fatigue properties (S-N curves) of commercial and high-purity 7075TMT are compared with conventional 7075-T651 properties; with zero mean stress the alternating stress to cause failure in 10⁷ cycles is more than 25 pct higher for commercial-purity 7075TMT and almost 50 pct higher for high-purity 7075TMT. The results emphasize the importance of microstructural control when high fatigue resistance is required. F. OSTERMANN, formerly with Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.     

Plastic deformation and fracture of binary TiAl-base alloys

The mechanical behavior of binary TiAl alloys containing 46 to 60 at. pct Al has been studied in bulk materials preparedvia rapid solidification processing. Bending and tensile tests were carried out at room temperature as a function of Al concentration. A few alloys were also tested from liquid nitrogen temperature to ∼ 1000°C. Deformation substructures were studied by analytical transmission electron microscopy and fracture modes by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It was found that both microstructure and composition strongly affect the mechanical behavior of TiAl-base alloys. A duplex structure, which contains both primary y grains and transformedγ/α ₂ lamellar grains, is more deformable than a single-phase or a fully transformed structure. The highest plasticities are observed in duplex alloys containing 48–50 at. pct Al after heat treatment in the center of theγ + α phase field. The deformation of these duplex alloys is facilitated by 1/2[110] slip and {111} twinning, but very limited superdislocation slip occurs. The twin deformation is suggested to result from a lowered stacking fault energy due to oxygen depletion or an intrinsic change in chemical bonding. Other factors, such as grain size and grain boundary chemistry and structure, are important from a fracture point of view. The results on the deformation and fracture modes as a function of test temperature are also discussed.