Mechanical properties of thermally sprayed Fe based coatings

Abstract

An additional coating against wear or corrosion on component parts is required for many applications. These coatings protect the substrate material against external influences, thus increasing the economic lifetime of the component. Coating processes such as build-up welding and thermal spraying are well established and commonly used. The thermal spray process, in particular, permits deposition of metals, ceramics, or cermets materials to produce near net shape coatings on complex surface geometries. However, commonly used coating materials suffer from high raw material costs, thus decreasing the cost effectiveness of the coating process. Fe based materials are low priced and possess noteworthy mechanical properties; they thus provide the possibility of substituting the expensive Ni and Co based materials commonly used for thermal spray processes. In this work, 2 mm thick high velocity oxyfuel sprayed Fe based coatings in the as sprayed and thermally sprayed and hot isostatic pressed condition were investigated with respect to their mechanical and wear properties. Additionally, the fracture surface was investigated by scanning electron microscopy to characterise the fracture behaviour. It could be demonstrated that the substrate and the heat treatment have the greatest impact on the shear strength of thermally sprayed cold work tool steel. It is shown that the substrate materials as well as the heat treatment are promoting diffusion processes across the interface between the coating and the substrate. Hence, a material integrated bond is formed. The microstructures of the thermally sprayed coatings become more important regarding the mechanisms of failure of the four point bending tests. The material strength is influenced by quenching and tempering and the specimen deflection is influenced by diffusion reactions induced by hot isostatic pressing treatment. The thermally sprayed coatings in the as sprayed condition feature the highest wear resistance due to their hardness.     

Computational simulation of thermally sprayed WC–Co powder

WC–Co cemented carbides are a class of hard composite materials of great technological importance. They are widely used as tool materials in a large variety of applications that have high demands on hardness and toughness, including mining, turning, cutting and milling. The HVOF (high velocity oxygen fuel) technology has been very successful in spraying wear resistant WC–Co coatings with higher density, superior bond strengths and less decarburization than many other thermal spray processes, attributed mainly to its high particle impact velocities and relatively low peak particle temperatures. The degree of decomposition and bond strength is directly related to relevant particle parameters such as velocity, temperature and state of melting or solidification. These are consecutively related to process parameters such as powder particle size distribution, carrier gas flow rate, and fuel type employed. To obtain detailed particle data important for thermal spraying, mathematical models are developed in the present paper to predict the particle dynamic behavior in a liquid fuelled HVOF thermal spray gun. The particle transport equations are coupled with the three-dimensional, chemically reacting, turbulent gas flow, and solved in a Lagrangian manner. The melting and solidification within the particles as a result of heat exchange with the surrounding gas flow is solved numerically. The in-flight characteristics of WC–Co particles are studied and the effects of carrier gas parameters on particle behavior are examined. The results demonstrate that WC–Co particles smaller than 5 μm in diameter undergo melting and solidification prior to impact while most particles never reach liquid state during the HVOF thermal spraying. The flow rate of carrier gas has considerable influence on particle dynamics as well as deposition on substrate. At higher flow rate the powder particles are redirected further away from the substrate center, while smaller flow rate results in better heating, higher impact velocity and deposition closer to the substrate center.     

Evaluating strength of thermally sprayed Al2O3 on aluminum

We evaluated the strength of thermally sprayed Al₂O₃ on aluminum. The thermally sprayed Al₂O₃ films were processed using low-pressure plasma spraying. The thickness of the thermally sprayed Al₂O₃ was 0.3 mm and 0.7 mm. We arranged a 4-point bending test and a heating test to evaluate the strength of the thermally sprayed Al₂O₃. We also investigated the effect of residual stress on the strength by measuring deformation of the thermally sprayed Al₂O₃ after removing the aluminum substrates. The bending strength was 120 MPa, regardless of thickness. We assumed that the bending strength would be equal to the tensile strength because the thermally sprayed Al₂O₃ films were very thin. A crack was generated at 433 K, regardless of thickness. The thermal stress was 160 MPa when the crack was generated. It was 40 MPa higher than we estimated. We found that the residual stress was compression stress that measured 40 MPa, which contributed to the prevention of the crack generation. We presume that the tensile strength was lower than the thermal stress because the residual stress was reduced by stress-relaxing of the aluminum near the interface in the bending test. The influence of heat-resisting strength is dominant over residual stress. Therefore, strength design should take into account residual stress.     

Analysis of the tensile behaviour of viscoelastically prestressed polymeric matrix composites

A novel composite material is reported, in which tension, applied to polymeric fibres, is released prior to moulding them into a matrix. Following matrix solidification, compressive stresses imparted by the viscoelastically strained fibres impede crack propagation. Previous Charpy impact studies had demonstrated that these viscoelastically prestressed composites could absorb typically 25–30% more energy than control (unstressed) counterparts and the current study focuses on their tensile behaviour as a function of fibre volume fraction, V_f. Tensile testing was performed on continuous unidirectional nylon 6,6 fibre–epoxy resin samples. Compared with control counterparts, the results showed that viscoelastic prestressing improved tensile properties, the effects being V_f-dependent. Increases in tensile strength, modulus and energy absorbed (to 0.25 strain) exceeded 15%, 30% and 40%, respectively, at an optimum V_f, this being 35–40%. Strain-to-failure was reduced by 10–20%, thereby lowering any improvement in tensile toughness (energy absorbed to fracture) to <10%. Mechanical properties of the fibres themselves were not significantly influenced by the treatment used for generating composite prestress, and we propose that the observed improvements to tensile properties may be attributed to: (i) direct contribution from compressive stress, (ii) attenuation of the dynamic overstress effect on fibre fracture and (iii) improved mechanical integrity through a more collective response from fibres to tensile loads.     

Fire behaviour of thermally insulated RC beams strengthened with NSM-CFRP strips: Experimental study

This paper presents the results of fire resistance tests on reinforced concrete (RC) beams flexurally strengthened with carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) strips installed according to the near surface mounted (NSM) technique using two different adhesives. The beams were simultaneously subjected to a service load and the ISO 834 standard fire. Different fire protection schemes were studied, comprising a thinner insulation layer along the bottom soffit of the beams and a thicker one at the CFRP anchorage zones. The main objectives of this paper were (i) to understand in further depth the fire behaviour of NSM-strengthened RC beams, in particular the structural effectiveness of the strengthening system during fire, (ii) to evaluate the efficiency of the above-mentioned fire protection strategy in extending the CFRP mechanical contribution during fire, and (iii) to compare the fire performance of the NSM-strengthening system with that of the alternative externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) technique, recently investigated under similar test conditions. The results obtained showed that using the adopted insulation schemes (i.e., thicker insulation at the anchorage zone and thinner insulation in the current zone), even after the CFRP-concrete bond is highly damaged in the central zone of the beams, the strengthening system is able to retain its structural effectiveness through a cable mechanism: for insulation thicknesses of 25 mm (current zone) and 50 mm (anchorage zones), the fire resistance of the strengthening system was extended up to 114 min. The loss of effectiveness of the CFRP system occurred when the average temperature in the adhesive at the CFRP anchorage zones attained values ranging from 2.2 to 5.6 times its glass transition temperature (T_g). The comparison with the EBR-strengthened beams confirmed the much better performance of the NSM strengthening.     

氧气流量对超音速火焰喷涂TiB2-40Co涂层组织和性能研究

采用超音速火焰喷涂技术在不同氧气流量条件下制备3种TiB2-40Co涂层,采用扫描电镜、X射线衍射仪研究了涂层的组织和相结构,运用压痕法测定了涂层的显微硬度,通过水淬法测试涂层的抗热震性能,并研究涂层的耐熔融铝硅腐蚀性能.结果表明,3种TiB2-40Co涂层具有叠层状结构,No.1涂层最为致密,其孔隙率仅为0.286%;涂层的主要物相为TiB2和Co;显微硬度值分别为697±60 HV0.3、523±86 HV0.3和648±38 HV0.3;No.1涂层具有最好的抗热震性能;经过120 h熔融铝硅腐蚀后发现,3种涂层均具有良好的抗熔融铝硅腐蚀性能,其中No.1涂层试样耐腐蚀性能最好.     

Experiments and predictions of the effects of load history on cleavage fracture in steel

A series of experiments conducted on two steels, A533B and A508, are summarised. Tests were conducted to explore the influence of different room temperature pre-loading cycles on subsequent low temperature (−150 °C and −170 °C) cleavage fracture. In all cases the low temperature fracture toughness was modified, with tensile pre-loading increasing the toughness and precompression reducing the toughness.Results from finite element simulation of the pre-loading cycles are illustrated. Tensile pre-loading created compressive residual stresses and precompression generated tensile residual stresses. The residual stresses were adopted in a stress based local approach to fracture model using Weibull statistics and applied to the experimental results. The parameters in the Weibull model were calibrated for the virgin steels prior to its application to prior loading cases. The model is found to be successful in predicting the change in toughness relative to the virgin material for pre-loading in tension of A533B steel. The model underestimated the change in toughness for tensile pre-loading of A508 steel and overestimated the toughness change for precompression of both steels.     

Formation of amorphous and nanocrystalline phases in high velocity oxy-fuel thermally sprayed a Fe–Cr–Si–B–Mn alloy

High velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) thermal spray was used to deposit a Fe–Cr–Si–B alloy coating onto stainless steel (1Cr18Ni9Ti) substrate. Microstructures of the powder and the coating were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning election microscopy (SEM), transmission election microscopy (TEM) and differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The coating had layered morphologies due to the deposition and solidification of successive molten or half-molten splats. The microstructures of the coating consisted of a Fe–Cr-rich matrix and several kinds of borides. The Fe–Cr-rich matrix contained both amorphous phase and nanocrystalline grains with a size of 10–50 nm. The crystallization temperature of the amorphous phase was about 605 °C. The formation of the amorphous phase was attributed to the high cooling rates of molten droplets and the proper powder compositions by effective addition of Cr, Mn, Si and B. The nanocrystalline grains could result from crystallization in amorphous region or interface of the amorphous phase and borides by homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation.     

Characterisations of HVOF sprayed NiCrBSi coatings on Ni- and Fe-based superalloys and evaluation of cyclic oxidation behaviour of some Ni-based superalloys in molten salt environment

Microstructure plays a predominant role in determining material behaviour. Increasing microstructure uniformity has long been considered a fruitful means of improving thermal, chemical and mechanical properties of the materials. High velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) is one of the emerging technologies among the thermal spraying techniques, for producing uniform and dense coatings, having high hardness and good adhesion values. In this study, HVOF technique was used to deposit NiCrBSi coatings, approximately 250-300 μm thick, on the Ni- and Fe-based superalloys for hot corrosion applications. The coatings were characterised in relation to coating thickness, porosity, microhardness and microstructure. The hot corrosion behaviour of the coatings deposited on nickel-based superalloys after exposure to molten salt (Na₂SO₄-60% V₂O₅) at 900 °C under cyclic conditions was also studied. The techniques used in the present investigation include X-ray diffraction, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDAX) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). The thermogravimetric technique was used to establish kinetics of corrosion. The structure of the as sprayed NiCrBSi coating mainly consisted of γ-nickel solid solution containing small fraction of Cr₇C₃ and Ni₃B phases. Very weak peaks of NiCr₂O₄ spinel oxides were also formed during spraying of the coatings. Some porosity (less than 1.4%) and inclusions were observed in the structure of the coatings. Coating microhardness values were found to be in the range of 750-930 Hv (Vickers Hardness) on different substrates. The NiCrBSi coating was found to be very effective in decreasing the corrosion rate in the given molten salt environment at 900 °C. The hot corrosion resistance imparted by NiCrBSi coatings may be attributed to the formation of oxides of silicon, chromium, nickel and spinels of nickel and chromium.     

Mechanical properties of superhard TiB2 coatings prepared by DC magnetron sputtering

Superhard titanium diboride (TiB₂) coatings (H_v> 40 GPa) were deposited in Ar atmosphere from stoichiometric TiB₂ target using an unbalanced direct current (d. c.) magnetron. Polished Si (0 0 1), stainless steel, high-speed steel (HSS) and tungsten carbide (WC) substrates were used for deposition. The influence of negative substrate bias, U_s, and substrate temperature, T_s, on mechanical properties of TiB₂ coatings was studied. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed hexagonal TiB₂ structure with (0 0 01) preferred orientation. The texture of TiB₂ coatings was dependent upon the ion bombardment (U_s increased from 0 to −300 V) and the substrate heating (T_s increased from room temperature (RT) to 700 °C). All TiB₂ coatings were measured using microhardness tester Fischerscope H100 equipped with Vickers and Berkovich diamond indenters and exhibited high values of hardness H_v up to 34 GPa, effective Young's modulus E*=E/(1-ν) ranging from 450 to 600 GPa; here E and ν are the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, respectively, and elastic recovery W_e≈80%. TiB₂ coating with a maximum hardness H_v≈73 GPa and E*≈580 GPa was sputtered at U_s=−200 V and T_s=RT. Macrostresses of coatings σ were measured by an optical wafer curvature technique and evaluated by Stoney equation. All TiB₂ coatings exhibited compressive macrostresses.     

Morphology of WC grains in WC–Co alloys

In two alloys WC–(24 wt.%) Co containing a C and W excess respectively, sintered at 1450 °C (10 h) the shape of the larger WC grains that is a prism with a truncated triangle base is studied by transmission electron microscopy. The truncation that is the ratio of the short/long triangle sides and the elongation that is the ratio of the prism/triangle heights are quantified. The grains are less truncated and flatter in the C rich alloy. In equilibrium condition the ratio of the interface energies of the prismatic facets determine the truncation. The ratio of the energies of the basal and prismatic planes determines the elongation. The measured truncation confirms the ratio of the interface energies predicted from atomistic calculation for the prismatic facets. The experimental elongation is of the same range as the ratio between the calculated energies in the W rich alloy but much smaller in the C rich alloy. The possible origins of the discrepancy – departure from the equilibrium WC grain shape, model of the WC–Co interfaces used to calculate the interface energies – are discussed.     

Strain-hardening and residual stress effects in plastic zones around indentations

Plastic zones were revealed by polishing away Vickers indentations made in soda-lime glass, WC–11% Co, W and 7075 Al. Micro and nanohardness traces were used to explore the local mechanical response. The hardness value within the deformed zone increased up to 21% depending on the material. Soda-lime glass was the only material not to show a hardening effect, in fact it showed a small decrease in hardness. Finite element calculations were used to qualitatively determine the influence from residual stresses at indentation of soda-lime glass. The results are discussed in the context of the influence from work-hardening and residual stresses on indentation quantities.     

Mechanical integrity of thin inorganic coatings on polymer substrates under quasi-static, thermal and fatigue loadings

The interplay between residual stress state, cohesive and adhesive properties of coatings on substrates is reviewed in this article. Attention is paid to thin inorganic coatings on polymers, characterized by a very high hygro-thermo-mechanical contrast between the brittle and stiff coating and the compliant and soft substrate. An approach to determine the intrinsic, thermal and hygroscopic contributions to the coating residual stress is detailed. The critical strain for coating failure, coating toughness and coating/substrate interface shear strength are derived from the analysis of progressive coating cracking under strain. Electro-fragmentation and electro-fatigue tests in situ in a microscope are described. These methods enable reproducing the thermo-mechanical loads present during processing and service life, hence identifying and modeling the critical conditions for failure. Several case studies relevant to food and pharmaceutical packaging, flexible electronics and thin film photovoltaic devices are discussed to illustrate the benefits and limits of the present methods and models.     

Prediction of welding distortion in butt joint of thin plates

This paper investigates distortions and residual stresses induced in butt joint of thin plates using Metal Inert Gas welding. A moving distributed heat source model based on Goldak’s double-ellipsoid heat flux distribution is implemented in Finite Element (FE) simulation of the welding process. Thermo-elastic–plastic FE methods are applied to modelling thermal and mechanical behaviour of the welded plate during the welding process. Prediction of temperature variations, fusion zone and heat affected zone as well as longitudinal and transverse shrinkage, angular distortion, and residual stress is obtained. FE analysis results of welding distortions are compared with existing experimental and empirical predictions. The welding speed and plate thickness are shown to have considerable effects on welding distortions and residual stresses.     

Prediction of residual stresses in thermally sprayed steel coatings considering the phase transformation effect

The present study is aimed to propose an elastoplastic bilayer model for prediction of residual stresses in thermally sprayed coatings, in which the effect caused by martensite phase transformation for steel coating materials was taken into account. Closed-form solutions of the curvature and stresses within the substrate and coating are obtained for the plastically deformed structures. Applications of the model for prediction of the twin-wire electric arc sprayed high carbon steel coatings were investigated subsequently. In the application case that a thin coating layer deposited with varying temperatures, the martensite phase transformation has a significant effect on the residual stress, e.g. a lower deposition temperature leads to more amount of martensite transformation and then to a lower level of final stress. The model was also used to predict the stress distribution of high carbon steel coating after quenching heat treatment, and the calculation results were compared with the X-ray residual stress measurements. It is found that the residual stresses on the coating surface obtained from the analytical model are closed to that obtained from the experiments.     

A simple but effective FE model with plastic shot for evaluation of peening residual stress and its experimental validation

We propose a practical finite element (FE) model for evaluation of peening residual stress. The model aims to produce a solution approaching the endeavored 3D FE solution. We investigate the effect of physical factors including material damping, dynamic friction and strain rate. The kinematical factors including shot diameter and impact velocity are also considered. Integrating those factors and plastic shots, we set up an effective FE model. Based on the arc height and coverage matching with the Almen saturation curve, impact velocity needed for FE analysis is determined. The model is found to provide the solution comparable with the 3D multi-impact FE solution and the experimental XRD result.     

High temperature fatigue deformation behaviors of thermally sprayed steel measured with electronic speckle pattern interferometry method

High temperature fatigue (R=0) damage and deformation behaviors of SUS304 steel thermally sprayed with Al₂O₃/NiCr coating were investigated using an electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) method. Surface cracks and delamination occurred after 1×10⁵ cycles test when σ_max was 202 MPa at 873 K. The lengths and number of cracks and delamination largely decreased when σ_max or temperature decreased to 115 MPa or 573 K, respectively. Strain values along cracks measured with the ESPI method were much larger than other areas due to crack opening under the tensile load. The positions of strain concentration zones on strain distribution figures by ESPI method were well corresponded to those of cracks on sprayed coatings. Strain values decreased largely where local delamination occurred.     

Mechanical and microstructural characteristics of detonation gun sprayed NiCrAlY + 0.4 wt% CeO2 coatings on superalloys

The microstructure and mechanical properties of detonation gun sprayed NiCrAlY + CeO₂ alloy coatings deposited on superalloys were investigated. The morphologies of the coatings were characterized by using the techniques such as optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction and field emission scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive analysis. The coating depicts the formation of dendritic structure and the microstructural refinement in the coating was due to ceria. Average porosity on three substrates was less than 0.58% and surface roughness of the coatings was in the range of 6.17–6.94 μm. Average bond strength and microhardness of the coatings were found to be 58 MPa and 697–920 H_V, respectively.     

Influence of composition on mechanical behaviour of porcelain tile. Part III: Effect of the cooling rate of the firing cycle

This paper is the third part of a study focusing on determining the influence of the porcelain tile composition on mechanical behaviour of sintered bodies. Tile compositions were prepared according to a simplex-centroid mixture design set out in Part I of this research, in which the microstructural characterisation of sintered specimens was carried out. In Part II the influence of the starting composition on the mechanical properties of sintered porcelain tile was evaluated on the basis of the linear elastic fracture mechanics. Finally, in this last Part, ceramic bodies from seven compositions were subjected to fast cooling after firing, in order to reproduce the industrial cooling rates. The main objective was to analyze the influence of the mineralogical composition of the starting mixture on the development of macroscopic residual stress and growth of flaw size. When the pieces were subjected to fast cooling, flaw size was the main factor determining the variation of the mechanical strength. This increase in flaw size can be interpreted from the Weibull modulus, from 6 to 8 in those mixtures, with high deterioration of mechanical properties. The mullite hypothesis as a strengthening mechanism in triaxial porcelains was clearly manifested when the samples are fast cooled. This mechanism was the main responsible for the strengthening, what contrasts with the increase in flaw size. The microscopic residual stress caused by the thermal expansion mismatch of the phases also acted as a reinforcement mechanism.     

Relief of Residual Stresses in 800 MPa Grade High Strength Steel Weldments by Explosion Treatment and its Effect on Mechanical Properties

The explosion treatment technique has been used in the relief of residual stresses in 800 MPa grade high strength steel manual welded joints. The residual stresses on surface and through thickness of the weldment were measured for both as-welded and explosion-treated sample, the mechanical properties of welded joints under different conditions were also tested. The effect of explosion treatment on the fracture toughness of materials with a residual defect was investigated by crack opening displacement （COD） test. The results show that explosion treatment can reduce not only the surface residual stress but also the residual stress through thickness in the welded joints. The effect of explosion treatment on the mechanical properties and a residual defect in welded joint were inconspicuous.