The wear behavior of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene

The wear behaviour of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene has been studied using a thrust-washer testing machine. The data are examined in the light of findings of other workers and of clinical results. The wear factor exhibits a maximum at about 500 lb in^?2 surface pressure for polyethylene samples tested in water. The use of plasma in place of water does not change the wear factor and this indicates that the wear of polyethylene is not sensitive to the type of liquid environment likely to be encountered in a total joint prosthesis.     

Nature of initial acts of friction of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene with steel surface

The friction between ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene and polished and ground steel surfaces is studied. It is shown that the initial stages of friction that occur on the polished surface are characterized by complex physicochemical transformations that develop up to the formation of Fe-O-C groups. As a result this, in the experiment, a hydrophobic modified nanosized steel surface has gradually formed for 20 min; the increment of mass at the surface has been measured at an accuracy of 1 × 10^?4 g.     

A statistical model of elasto-plastic asperity contact between rough surfaces

This work models statistically elasto-plastic contact between two rough surfaces using the results of a previous finite element analysis of an elasto-plastic sphere in contact with a rigid flat. The individual asperity contact model used accounts for a varying geometrical hardness effect that has recently been documented in previous works (where geometrical hardness is defined as the uniform pressure found during fully plastic contact). The contact between real surfaces with known material and surface properties, such as the elastic modulus, yield strength, and roughness are modeled. The asperity is modeled as an elastic-perfectly plastic material. The model produces predictions for contact area, contact force, and surface separation. The results of this model are compared to other existing models of asperity contact. Agreement exists in some cases and in other cases it corrects flaws, especially at large deformations. The model developed by Chang, Etsion and Bogy is also shown to have serious flaws when compared to the others. This work also identifies significant limitations of the statistical models (including that of Greenwood and Williamson).     

Fluid composition impacts standardized testing protocols in ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene knee wear testing

Wear of total knee replacements is determined gravimetrically in simulator studies. A mix of bovine serum, distilled water, and additives is intended to replicate the lubrication conditions in vivo. Weight gain due to fluid absorption during testing is corrected using a load soak station. In this study, three sets of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene tibial plateau were tested against highly polished titanium condyles. Test 1 was performed in two different institutions on the same simulator according to the standard ISO 14243-1, using two testing lubricants. Test 2 and test 3 repeated both previous test sections. The wear and load soak rates changed significantly with the lubricant. The wear rate decreased from 16.9 to 7.9 mg weight loss per million cycles when switching from fluid A to fluid B. The weight gain of the load soak specimen submersed in fluid A was 6.1 mg after 5 x 10(6) cycles, compared with 31.6 mg for the implant in fluid B after the same time period. Both lubricants were mixed in accordance with ISO 14243 (Implants for surgery - wear of total knee-joint prostheses), suggesting that calf serum should be diluted to 25 +/- 2 per cent with deionized water and a protein mass concentration of not less than 17 g/l. The main differences were the type and amount of additives that chemically stabilize the lubricant throughout the test. The results suggest that wear rates can only be compared if exactly the same testing conditions are applied. An agreement on detailed lubricant specifications is desirable.     

Contact mechanics of rough surfaces in tribology: multiple asperity contact

Contact modeling of two rough surfaces under normal approach and with relative motion is carried out to predict real area of contact and surface and subsurface stresses affecting friction and wear of an interface. When two macroscopically flat bodies with microroughness come in contact, the contact occurs at multiple asperities of arbitrary shapes, and varying sizes and heights. Deformation at the asperity contacts can be either elastic and/or elastic-plastic. If a thin liquid film is present at the interface, attractive meniscus forces may affect friction and wear. Historically, statistical models have been used to predict contact parameters, and these generally require many assumptions about asperity geometry and height distributions. With the advent of computer technology, numerical contact models of 3-D rough surfaces have been developed, particularly in the past decade, which can simulate digitized rough surfaces with no assumptions concerning the roughness distribution. In this article, a comprehensive review of modeling of multiple-asperity contacts in dry and wet conditions is presented. Contact models for homogeneous and layered, elastic and elastic-plastic solids with and without tangential loading are presented. The models reviewed in this paper fall into two groups: (a) analytical solutions for surfaces with well-defined height distributions and asperity geometry and (b) numerical solutions for real surfaces with asperities of arbitrary shape and varying size and height distributions. Implications of these models in friction and wear studies are discussed. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Preliminary investigation of the tribological characteristics of composite coatings sliding against ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene

The performance of several composite coatings sliding against ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene was evaluated in 3 h screening tests. The most promising coatings were then selected to run in 48 h wear tests, both dry and in the presence of distilled water. Composite coatings containing particles of Al₂O₃ and Cu and of 18-8 stainless steel and Al₂O₃ in epoxy matrices exhibited thermal, frictional and surface wear characteristics similar to those seen when 316 stainless steel was run against ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene.     

Effects of the sample preparation temperature on the nanostructure of compression moulded ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene

In this study, the effects of the sample sectioning temperature on the surface nanostructure and mechanical response of compression moulded ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) at a nanometer scale (nanomechanical properties) have been characterized. The primary focus of this work was to determine if the sample sectioning temperature significantly changed the nanostructure of UHMWPE, while the secondary focus was to characterize the effect on the mechanical response due to the changes in the sectioned surface nanostructure. The goals of this study were: (a) to investigate the potential possibility of creating surface artefacts by the sample preparation technique by sectioning at different temperatures relative to the published range of glass transition temperatures, Tg, for PE (-12, -80 and -25 degrees C); (b) to determine the possibility of molecular orientation induced by plastic deformation of the UHMWPE sample during the process of sample preparation; (c) to measure the relative difference in nanomechanical properties owing to evolution of different nanostructures as a function of sample sectioning temperature. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and nanoindentation were used to demonstrate that the sectioning temperature caused a change in nanostructure of the compression moulded UHMWPE sectioned surface, explaining the change in mechanical response to indentation at a nanoscale. In this study, it was demonstrated that significant plastic deformation occurs when a shear stress is applied between the glass or diamond blade and the UHMWPE during sample preparation under ambient conditions at a temperature of 22 degrees C. These results also suggest that an optimum sample sectioning temperature should definitely be below the measured Tg of the polymer.     

Wear resistance of composites based on ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene filled with graphite and molybdenum disulfide microparticles

Tribological characteristics of ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)-based compositions with graphite and molybdenum disulfide are studied under conditions of dry friction, boundary lubrication, and abrasive wear. It is shown that, under dry sliding friction, the wear rate of UHMWPE-graphite and UHMWPE-MoS2 polymer compositions is halved as compared to that of pure UHMWP, while their mechanical characteristics change only slightly. Under the conditions of abrasive wear, the wear resistance of these composites increases by 1.3–1.5 times. Concentrations of the fillers, which are optimum for improving the wear resistance, are determined. The supramolecular structure and the topography of worn surfaces of the UHMWPE compositions with various concentrations of the fillers are examined. A comparative analysis of the wear resistance of the composites under conditions of dry friction and lubrication is carried out. Mechanisms of the wear of the UHMWPE-graphite and UHMWPE-MoS₂ polymer compositions under conditions of dry sliding friction and abrasive wear are discussed.     

Transition from elastic to plastic deformation as asperity contact size is increased

Contacts between a clean sodium chloride pyramidal shaped asperity and a plane NaCl surface have been investigated by molecular dynamics simulations. For small contacts, a few atoms across, the asperity jumped to contact and behaved elastically as normal load was applied. Then, when the force was reversed to detach the asperity, brittle failure occurred without any damage to the crystalline materials. However, as the contact size of the asperity was increased to 6 × 6 atoms in area, the mechanism of detachment was seen to alter. The jump to contact was elastic and damage free, but the separation could not be achieved elastically, but required plastic deformation, giving extensive energy dissipation and severe damage as edge defects propagated through the asperity. Above this contact size, plastic flow was dominant. However, there is clearly a further transition back to elastic fracture once the asperity becomes large enough for Griffith-type cracking to propagate above 1 μm in size, since large sodium chloride contacts are known to be brittle above the micrometre scale, depending on the presence of crack initiating defects.     

Elastic–plastic adhesive contact of rough surfaces based on plastic asperity concept

The paper describes an analysis of adhesive contact between rough surfaces with small-scale surface asperities using an elastic–plastic model of contact deformation based on fictitious plastic asperity concept developed by Abdo and Farhang [Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 40 (2005) 495]. The model considers simultaneous occurrence of elastic and plastic behaviours for an asperity. The well-established elastic adhesion index and plasticity index are used to consider the different contact conditions that arise as a result of varying load and material parameters. The load-separation behaviour for different combinations of these parameters is obtained. Comparison with previous elastic–plastic model that was based on elastic-then-plastic assumption is made showing significant differences.     

Effect of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene thickness on contact mechanics in total knee replacement

One of the important design parameters in current knee joint replacements is the thickness of the ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) tibial insert, yet there is no clear definition of the upper limit of the 'thick' polyethylene insert. Using one design knee implant and subjecting it to the physiological loads encountered throughout the gait cycle, measurements of the lengths of contact imprints generated were compared with the corresponding theoretical predictions for different insert thicknesses under the same applied load. Multiple regression analysis was applied to test whether the dimensions of contact imprints are influenced by UHMWPE thickness. Good agreement was obtained between the theoretical predictions and the experimental measurements of the dimensions of contact imprints when the knee was at 60 degrees flexion. Therefore, it was possible to estimate the contact pressure at the articulating surface using the theoretical model. Contact imprint dimensions increased with increasing applied load. Statistical analysis of the experimental data revealed that, at 0 degree flexion, the overall imprint dimensions increased as the UHMWPE thickness increased from 8 to 20 mm. However, the increment was not significant when the thickness subinterval 10-15 mm was considered. Furthermore, at 60 degrees flexion, thickness was not a significant factor for the overall imprint dimensions. No evidence was found from the data to suggest that an increment in polyethylene thickness over 10 mm would significantly reduce the contact imprint dimensions. These findings suggest that thicker inserts can be avoided, as they require unnecessary bone resection.     

Effect of contact pressure on wear and friction of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene in multidirectional sliding

Computational wear models need input data from valid tribological tests. For the wear model of a total hip prosthesis, the contact pressure dependence of wear and friction of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) against polished CoCr in diluted calf serum lubricant was studied, and useful input data produced. Two test devices were designed and built: a heavy load circularly translating pin-on-disc (HL-CTPOD) wear test device and an HL-CTPOD friction measurement device. Both can be used with a wide range of loads. The wear surface diameter of the test pin was kept constant at 9 mm, whereas the load was varied so that the nominal contact pressure ranged from 0.1 to 20 MPa. The wear factor decreased with increasing contact pressure, whereas the coefficient of friction first increased with increasing contact pressure with low pressure values and then decreased. Up to the pressure of 2.0 MPa, the wear mechanisms and wear factors were in good agreement with clinical findings. In the critical range of 2.0-3.5 MPa, the wear mechanisms and wear factors started to differ from clinical ones, and the decrease of the wear factor steepened. The discrepancy became more and more evident as the pressure was gradually increased beyond 3.5 MPa. It appears that the pressure value of 2.0 MPa should not be exceeded in pin-on-disc wear tests that are to reproduce the clinical wear of UHMWPE acetabular cups.     

Direct observation of asperity deformation of specimens with random rough surfaces in upsetting and indentation processes

The trapping behavior of liquid lubricant and contact behavior of asperities at the workpiece-tool interface during upsetting and indentation are observed directly using a compression subpress which consists of a transparent die made of sapphire, a microscope with a CCD camera and a video system. The experiments are carried out without lubricant and with lubricant. Specimens used are commercially pure A1100 aluminum with a random rough surface. From these observations, the change in the fraction of real contact area is measured by an image processor. The real contact area ratios in upsetting experiments without lubricant are in good agreement with numerical ones obtained by Wanheim and Bay and Makinouchi et al. The real contact area ratios in indentation experiments without lubricant increase linearly with increasing normal stress up to 350 MPa. The real contact area ratios after upsetting and indentation experiments with lubricant reached a limiting value of about 60%.     

Effect of contact stress on friction and wear of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene in total hip replacement

This paper studies the effect of contact stress on friction and wear of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) acetabular cups by means of friction and wear joint simulator testing under serum lubrication. For a given applied load, increasing the contact stress by increasing the ball/socket radial clearance decreased both the coefficient of friction and the wear rate. Friction and wear were highly correlated. The dependence of friction on contact stress for the UHMWPE socket under serum lubrication was similar to that of semi-crystalline polymers under dry sliding. This finding indicates the occurrence of partial dry contact at asperity levels for the metal-polyethylene ball-in-socket joint under serum lubrication.     

Elastic–plastic adhesive contact of rough surfaces with asymmetric distribution of asperity heights

The elastic–plastic adhesive contact of rough surfaces is extended to include asymmetric distribution of asperity heights using the Weibull distribution with skewness as the key parameter to characterize asymmetry. The well-established elastic adhesion index and plasticity index are used to consider the different conditions that arise as a result of varying load and material parameters. The loading and unloading behaviour for different combinations of adhesion index, plasticity index and skewness values are obtained as functions of mean separation between the surfaces. It is seen that surfaces with negative skewness experience higher adhesion compared to surfaces with positive or zero skewness.     

Effect of interface conditions between ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene and polymethyl methacrylate bone cement on the mechanical behaviour of total shoulder arthroplasty

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the interface condition between polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) bone cement and the ultrahigh molecular weight (UHMWPE) glenoid component on cement stresses and glenoid component tilting in a finite element (FE) model. The background of this research is that most FE models assume bonding between the PMMA bone cement and the UHMWPE component, although it is very doubtful that this bonding is present. An FE model of a cemented glenoid component was developed and a joint compression force and subluxation force of 725 and 350 N respectively were applied. The maximal principal stresses in the cement layer ranged between 21.30 and 32.18 MPa. Glenoid component tilting ranged between 0.943 degrees and 0.513 degrees. It was found that the interface condition has a large effect on the maximal principal stresses and glenoid component tilting. Whether adhesion between the UHMWPE component and PMMA bone cement occurs is unknown beforehand and, as a result, design validation using the FE technique should be carried out both by using contact elements in combination with a coefficient of friction as well as by a full bonding at this interface.     

Nanoindentation properties of compression-moulded ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene

This paper investigates the elastic modulus and hardness of untreated and treated compression-moulded ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) tibial inserts of a total knee replacement (TKR) prosthesis. Investigations were carried out at a nanoscale using a Nanoindenter at penetration depths of 100,250 and 500 nm. The nanomechanical properties of surface and subsurface layers of the compression-moulded tibial inserts were studied using the untreated UHMWPE. The nanomechanical properties of intermediate and core layers of the compression-moulded tibial insert were studied using the cryoultrasectioned and etched UHMWPE treated samples. The cryoultrasectioning temperature (-150 degrees C) of the samples was below the glass transition temperature, Tg (-122 +/- 2 degrees C ), of UHMWPE. The measurement of the mechanical response of crystalline regions within the nanostructure of UHMWPE was accomplished by removing the amorphous regions using a time-varying permanganic-etching technique. The percentage crystallinity of UHMWPE was measured using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and the Tg of UHMWPE was determined by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to assess the effect of surface preparation on the samples average surface roughness, Ra. In this study, it was demonstrated that the untreated UHMWPE samples had a significantly lower (p < 0.0001) elastic modulus and hardness relative to treated UHMWPE cryoultrasectioned and etched samples at all penetration depths. No significant difference (p > 0.05) in elastic modulus and hardness between the cryoultrasectioned and etched samples was observed. These results suggest that the surface nanomechanical response of an UHMWPE insert in a total joint replacement (TJR) prosthesis is significantly lower compared with the bulk of the material. Additionally, it was concluded that the nanomechanical response of material with higher percentage crystallinity (67 per cent) was predominantly determined by the crystalline regions within the semi-crystalline UHMWPE nanostructure.     

The wear characteristics of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene against a high density alumina ceramic under wet (distilled water) and dry conditions

In recent years there has been growing interest in the use of high density alumina ceramic material for the femoral ball in association with ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) for the acetabular component in total replacement hip joints.The wear characteristics of UHMWPE pins sliding against a high density alumina ceramic disc in the presence of distilled water in a tri-pin-on-disc machine have been revealed in very long-term experiments reported in this paper. A total sliding distance in excess of 6000 km was achieved and very low mean wear coefficients of the order of 10^?8 mm³ N^?1 m^?1 were recorded.Experiments were also carried out over a shorter sliding distance under dry conditions and the average wear coefficient of 2 × 10^?7mm³N^?1m^?1 was consistent with earlier findings. In these dry tests, comet-like streaks of polyethylene were transferred to the ceramic counterface, but no such transfer was noted during the wet tests. When distilled water was added to the test chamber after a considerable period of dry sliding, the wear coefficient rapidly decreased to about 10^?8 mm³ N^?1 m^?1 and the streaky transfer film disappeared from the ceramic counterface.The possibility of hydrodynamic action between the wear face on the pins and the counterface was investigated by reversing the direction of sliding. Surface topography changes on both the pins and the discs and friction and bulk temperatures of the pins were recorded throughout the tests.It is concluded that the excellent dry wear coefficients of UHMWPE sliding on alumina ceramic counterfaces are about twenty times greater than those experienced by the same materials in the presence of distilled water. The tribological advantage of the ceramic with respect to stainless steel having a similar surface roughness has been confirmed in dry sliding involving UHMWPE, but further work is required to determine whether or not the same advantage can be achieved under wet conditions.     

Dynamic compressive creep of extruded ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene

To estimate the true wear rate of polyethylene acetabular cups used in total hip arthroplasty, the dynamic compressive creep deformation of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) was quantified as a function of time, load amplitude, and radial location of the specimen in the extruded rod stock. These data were also compared with the creep behavior of polyethylene observed under static loading. Total creep strains under dynamic loading were only 64%, 70%, and 61% of the total creep strains under static loading at the same maximum pressures of 2 MPa, 4 MPa, and 8 MPa, respectively. Specimens cut from the periphery of the rod stock demonstrated more creep than those cut from the center when they were compressed in a direction parallel to the extrusion direction (vertical loading), whereas the opposite was observed when specimens were compressed in a direction perpendicular to the extrusion direction (transverse loading). These findings show that creep deformation of UHMWPE depends upon the orientation of the crystalline lamellae.     

Combined effect of friction and macroscopic deformation on asperity flattening

The combined effect of friction and macroscopic plastic deformation on asperity flattening is studied. Crushing of a periodic array of wedge-like asperities is formulated as a rigid-viscoplastic periodic indentation problem with superimposed macroscopic deformation. A micromechanical framework is developed and the corresponding boundary value problem is solved using the finite element method. An anomalous regime of asperity flattening is predicted at low flattening rates, in which the effect of friction on asperity flattening is opposite to that observed in the absence of macroscopic deformation and also at high flattening rates. An incremental elastoplastic analysis confirms this finding.